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By J. J. Jakosky

The fundamental hydrodynamic principles governing the production of oil from wells have been carefully studied and evaluated by many investigators. These prior studies are quite complete and cover virtually the entire field of oil production and recovery.' One of the most important measurements in production studies is that of the bottom-hole pressure at various rates of production.2 It is the purpose of this paper to outline the technique and economics of fluid-level measurements as applied to pumping wells and to review briefly other methods for obtaining bottom-hole data. The applications of bottom-hole pressure or fluid-level measurements are based on simple hydrodynamic principles. Under equilibrium conditions, pbh = hd + pg + pch [1] when pbk = bottom-hole pressure, Ib. per sq. in. absolute, h = height of fluid in well, ft., d = average fluid density, Ib. per sq. in. per foot, p, = weight of section of gas column 1 in, square from fluid level to casinghead, Pch = casinghead pressure, Ib. per sq. in. absolute. In words, equation 1 states that the bottom-hole pressure is equal to the weight hd of the column of fluid plus the weight of the column of gas between the fluid and the casinghead plus the casinghead pressure. At moderate rates of flow, the rate of production is approximatcly proportional to the difference between the reservoir, or static bottom-hole. pressure and the flowing or producing pressure; i.e.: Q = c(pr - pbh) [2] pr = the reservoir pressure, c = the constant of proportionality. However, at production rates approaching zero and also at high rates the proportionality may break down. By combining equations 1 and 2 the

Jan 1, 1939

By M. R. Geer, H. F. Yancey

Although the use of dense suspensions for coal cleaning was pioneered in the United States with the Chance sand flotation process, and during the past year a pilot plant using a magnetite suspension has started operation in this country, the more recent developments in this field of coal cleaning have occurred principally in the Netherlands. During the thirties the Dutch developed the Barvoys process, in which a medium of barite and clay is employed, the Tromp process, which utilizes a magnetite suspension, and the Loess process, in which is used the air-borne earth or soil known as loess.1-3 All these processes are finding increasing use in European coal-cleaning practice. Now a fourth process, the cyclone cleaner, is under development by the Netherlands State Mines. A cyclone thickener for reclaiming and thickening the dense suspension is a novel feature of the Loess process. Through accident, the discovery was made that the cyclone could be utilized as a cleaning device for fine coal. When the cyclone thickener at the Maurits mine plugged, the overflow was found filled with clean coal free of refuse, and from this observation developed the concept of the cyclone as a coal cleaner. In June 1945 the cyclone cleaner was observed by one of the authors,' and in September 1945 it was described by Dries-sen6 in a paper presented in London before the Institute of Fuel. As the cyclone seemed to offer unusual promise as a means of extending heavy-medium cleaning to the finer sizes of coal that cannot readily be treated in existing heavy-medium processes, the Bureau of Mines, following Driessen's, presentation, launched an investigation of the cyclone as a coal cleaner. Added impetus was given to this study by the present increased interest in heavy-medium cleaning in this country. Object and Scope of Investigation Driessen's report, although comprehensive in many respects, did not include a detailed description of the cyclone cleaner, and contained almost no information on the influence of the various operating variables of the cyclone. It was necessary, therefore, to investigate the influence of the cyclone adjustments on its performance before studying the application of the cyclone to various coal-washing problems. The present report is confined entirely to these preliminary tests, designed to demonstrate the operating characteristics of the cyclone. The investigation has been in progress

Jan 1, 1949

By M. W. Bartley, Hugh M. Roberts

SUBSTANTIAL deposits of Bessemer hematite have been found recently by drilling beneath Steep Rock Lake, Ontario, which is situated in the northern part of the Lake Superior Region. It will be practicable to divert the waters flowing into this lake and develop open pits on the upper part of two large ore bodies by damming off and pumping out the water in the part of the lake in which they occur. Ultimately, the bulk of the ore will be mined by underground methods. Owing to the generally massive nature of the rocks in the area, no underground flows of major consequence are anticipated after diversion of the lake. The Steep Rock deposits are attributed in origin to hydrothermal replacement. They were formed, for the most part, along an unconformable, brecciated contact between the Steep Rock limestone and an overlying younger volcanic series. The replacing solutions came in as igneous after-effects, following upon the intrusion of basic igneous rocks that invaded the hanging-wall volcanics. It is believed that this took place in a geological period roughly equivalent to late Middle Huronian, which was the period when the most extensive iron-bearing rocks of the Lake Superior Region were formed. Comparison is made with other deep-seated iron-ore bodies in the Lake Superior Region, the origins of which are ascribed in the discussion to hydrothermal replacement.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. R. McNaughton

The Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada, Ltd. at Trail, B. C., inaugurated a comprehensive program of investigation about 15 years ago to develop the most economical process of recovering the metal in the large accumulated stock of by-products of the lead smelter and the zinc plant. Two principal methods of recovery were followed to a successful conclusion—an electrothermic process to treat zinc-plant residues and cold slag and the fuming of hot slag from the lead blast furnaces. The latter was selected because it showed a saving over the former in its ability to handle hot blast-furnace slag, thus obviating the necessity of granulating, handling and eventually remelting the same slag for the electrothermic process. The design of a fuming plant was commenced in 1928, and construction, which was started immediately, was completed in July 1030. Operating intermittently for a general tuning up, the plant was officially blown in for regular operation in August. During this month the vagaries of a slag-fuming plant were studied and an operating crew was trained. A history of slag fuming at Trail and the development of plant design is given in a paper by G. E. Murray in the Transactions of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy for 1933. Fuming Plant The fuming plant at Trail (Fig. 1) is a separate unit although of necessity interlocked closely with the lead smelter. The plant consists essentially of a fuming furnace with its accessories, a waste-heat boiler followed by an economizer, and a suction-type baghouse. The plant was built as the first of two 400-ton units with the intention of adding the second unit within a year, so that flues, fans and buildings were built to handle double the original load. Furnace.—The furnace as originally built (Fig. 2) was of water-jacket construction, 10 ft. wide, 20 ft. long and 6 to 10 ft. high. The roof height was made variable to check experimental work, which had indicated that this dimension affected the rate of reduction. Coal and air were supplied

Jan 1, 1937

By George A. Moore, Donald P. Smith

In spite of many investigations of the occlusion of hydrogen in iron, the nature of the process and the reasons for the accompanying effects upon the metal are still open questions. This is in large part due to three causes: (1) the difficulty of obtaining iron of adequate purity as starting material; (2) the occurrence of allotropic transformations, which complicate the effects; and (3) the fact that the body-centered cubic modification does not lend itself readily to crystallographic investigation. The present paper attempts a critical review and correlation of the somewhat scattered and disconnected existing observations, and an experimental determination of the extent to which the conclusions that appear to follow from these are applicable to iron of really high purity, studied under well-defined conditions. Review Although only a comparatively few investigations have so far been made on the pure system iron-hydrogen, there is a much larger volume of literature which throws some light on the problem but falls short of a place in the systematic investigations, either because no attempt was made to measure equilibrium conditions or because the metal used was not iron or the gas not pure hydrogen. Such results have been variously dismissed in the past as of no importance, or as too complicated to try to explain; or they have been explained in terms of any of a dozen or more pictures, each of which is contradicted by data from other sources. The present importance of these data thus arises from their very mass and diversity, which present a picture of occlusion as a phenomenon whose variability cannot be ignored. We have attempted to organize the literature into groups comprising similar experiments or data leading to similar conclusions, thus of necessity sacrificing accuracy of historical order. Lattice Occlusion.—Throughout this discussion, the term "lattice occlusion" will be used to denote the formation of a simple solid solution of a gas in a metal lattice, usually of interstitial distribution. The word

Jan 1, 1939

By George A. Moore, Donald P. Smith

In spite of many investigations of the occlusion of hydrogen in iron, the nature of the process and the reasons for the accompanying effects upon the metal are still open questions. This is in large part due to three causes: (1) the difficulty of obtaining iron of adequate purity as starting material; (2) the occurrence of allotropic transformations, which complicate the effects; and (3) the fact that the body-centered cubic modification does not lend itself readily to crystallographic investigation. The present paper attempts a critical review and correlation of the somewhat scattered and disconnected existing observations, and an experimental determination of the extent to which the conclusions that appear to follow from these are applicable to iron of really high purity, studied under well-defined conditions. Review Although only a comparatively few investigations have so far been made on the pure system iron-hydrogen, there is a much larger volume of literature which throws some light on the problem but falls short of a place in the systematic investigations, either because no attempt was made to measure equilibrium conditions or because the metal used was not iron or the gas not pure hydrogen. Such results have been variously dismissed in the past as of no importance, or as too complicated to try to explain; or they have been explained in terms of any of a dozen or more pictures, each of which is contradicted by data from other sources. The present importance of these data thus arises from their very mass and diversity, which present a picture of occlusion as a phenomenon whose variability cannot be ignored. We have attempted to organize the literature into groups comprising similar experiments or data leading to similar conclusions, thus of necessity sacrificing accuracy of historical order. Lattice Occlusion.—Throughout this discussion, the term "lattice occlusion" will be used to denote the formation of a simple solid solution of a gas in a metal lattice, usually of interstitial distribution. The word

Jan 1, 1939

By Frank C. Appleyard

Gypsum, the dihydrate form of calcium sulfate, has a history of usefulness to man dating back several thousand years, and a worldwide industry has been built on the mining and processing of this versatile industrial mineral. However, anhydrite, the other principal calcium sulfate mineral has very limited use, so much so that separate statistics for it are not always kept, but are usually included with those for gypsum. Although often found in close association, the two minerals have important chemical differences in that anhydrite is the anhydrous form of calcium sulfate (CaSO,) whereas gypsum is the dihydrate (CAS0;2H20). These two molecules of combined water result in significant differences in hardness, density, and solubility of the two minerals. However, of most importance is the difference in thermal properties wherein gypsum, upon the application of a modest amount of heat, can be converted to the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate (CaS0;Vi H,O) or plaster of paris, an intermediate product upon which is based over 90% of the value of all calcium sulfate end products. Anhydrite, on the other hand, is inert at these temperatures and its uses have been limited to only those few cases where calcium sulfate in the anhydrous form may have an advantage. The earliest known use of gypsum plaster dates back some 5000 years to the time of the Pharaohs of Egypt who had discovered that gypsum rock, when exposed to fire, broke down into a powder which when mixed with water would form a putty that could be "plastered" on a rough mud brick or stone wall to make a smooth finish. It was used down through the centuries in a limited way for ornamental purposes, but did not achieve wide acceptance because of its quick (25 to 30 min) setting or hardening time which made it difficult to use. The first real understanding of gypsum chemistry was developed in France about 1755, and the gradual growth of its present utilization dates from that time. In the United States, the first utilization of gypsum was to grind it to a fine material for use as a soil conditioner at about the time of the Revolutionary War, and the term "land plaster" for ground gypsum has remained in use. Another cementituous material-lime or calcium oxide-had become the usual plastering material, but by about 1870 a method for retarding the set of gypsum plaster was discovered and it has today almost completely replaced lime as a plastering material. In recent years, gypsum products sold in the United States have reached a total valuation of approximately $500 million per year as illustrated in [Table 1].

Jan 1, 1975

By L. T. Sicka, H. N. Thomson

The Tooele plant of the Internationa1 Smelting & Refining Co. is situated at the mouth of Pine canyon, Tooele county, Utah. It is connected with the main line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroad by the Tooele Valley railway, and is about 7 miles from Tooele Junction. Fig. 1 is a general view of the plant. The copper plant has been in operation since July, 1910, arid the first blast furnace at the lead plant was blown in on Feb. 29, 1912. The location of the plant was selected on sloping ground with the idea of using gravity to the fullest extent and thus keeping labor at a minimum. Practically the entire plant is constructed of steel, reinforced concrete, and brick. Bingham ores, both lead and copper, are received over the Utah Consolidated Aerial Tramway. The tram buckets, each containing

Jan 1, 1914

By R. E. Reed-Hill, W. H. Hartt

The "(3034) " twin lamellae in magnesium have been reexamined using electron microscope replicas. The double twinning sequence (1011)- (1012) for these lamellae has been reconfirmed. Evidence is presented showing that the irrational habit of these twins is probably the direct result of a need to accommodate the second-order twinning shear. This accommodation vesults in both an external shear in the matrix and an internal shear in the lamella. A model is presented which accounts for the experimental obseruations. HCP metals are generally characterized by strong textures in which the basal planes of the grains tend to be aligned parallel to the rolling direction in sheet or plate and to the axis of wires and rods. Since these directions are normally those in which finished products may be subjected to uniaxial tensile stress, these textures effectively place the crystals of magnesium objects in orientations unfavorable to both basal slip and {1012) twinning, the easily activated deformation systems of this metal. However, when magnesium crystals are deformed near room temperature by a tensile stress nearly parallel to the basal plane, another mode of deformation can occur.',2 This is _a double twin which forms first by twinning on {loll), followed by retwinning on (1012). The resulting twin lamellae are of considerable interest. First, they can be responsible for "brittle fracture''; when a tensile stress axis lies in the basal plane, because the reoriented crystal structure of a lamella is well-aligned for slip while the parent crystal is not. Extensive internal deformation may thus occur while the matrix is still almost undeformed. This deformation can produce a ductile rupture running the length of the twin.3 Complete failure of the specimen may then oc-cure by the spreading of cracks from one twin lamella to another, or by the movement of a crack into a grain boundary and then along grain boundaries. Since the the volume fraction of these doubly twinned elements is normally very small, the fracture may be classed as brittle, although the fracture mechanism is, of itself, essentially ductile. It is quite probable that the ductility transition, normally observed4 in magnesium at or slightly Obove room temperature, is closely associated with these second-order twins. The detailed relationship of these twins to fracture in single crystals will be the topic of another paper. The present paper is concerned with a second important aspect: the irrational habit of these double twins that falls close to {3034), or approximately 7 deg away from the primary (10il) twin habit. There is good reason to believe that this habit results directly

Jan 1, 1968

By William R. Barton

Iron and steel slag represent man's most successful attempt to date to profitably utilize a solid waste. Its consumption represents a solution to a solid waste problem and also represents tonnage of natural aggregates that will not have to be mined with concomitant disturbance of the land. Slag has been produced as long as iron has been made; but until a little more than 50 years ago, it was mostly a waste product to be disposed of with as little effort and cost as possible. Huge piles of waste slag were generated over the years of iron and steelmaking. Sporadic use was found for small amounts starting with slag (from Catalan forges) used for road bases by the Roman Empire. The first recorded sustained commercial use was, as is often the case in man's history, for making war. Some profit- conscious munitions maker in the 16th century realized that he could make cannon balls of slag instead of the more precious iron. Other small-volume uses gradually developed: cast building blocks, slag-lime mortars and cements, slag wool, ballast, road base, and, finally, in concrete. But it was not until after World War II that the true potential of blast-furnace slag as a construction aggregate was really recognized. Now nearly all blast-furnace slag produced is used, and much of the earlier stock- piles in the U. S. have been reduced or entirely consumed. Steel slag for aggregate use has been in commerce for only the past 10 years, and use has increased rapidly (10-50% per year) during the past 5 years as blast-furnace slag supplies became depleted. However, much remains to be accomplished in determining character and optimum conditions of use for various types of steel slags before such slags will realize their full use potential. Although slag represents only 2% of construction aggregate materials used in the U.S., its production involves certain features that make its production record far more important than national tonnage figures would indicate. Its source is in iron and steel production and concomitantly slag availability is restricted to those areas where iron or steel is produced. In such areas, it often represents one of the principal aggregates marketed and, because of special properties that make slag a selected aggregate for certain uses, the tonnage imbalance may be overcome by the importance of its contribution to quality or special characteristics of end products. The location and number (Fig. 1) of slag plants handling this annual production is governed by the geographic makeup of the iron producing industry. Prior to the period marked by World War 11, most blast furnaces were in the Great Lakes area-Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Chicago, Gary, Buffalo, Detroit, Youngstown, and Toledo, with exceptions at Baltimore, Bethlehem, and Birmingham. Since that time, iron and steel facilities have been established in Texas, Utah, and California. Today 85 slag plants in 15 states provide employment for almost 2000 persons. The slag plants also recover almost 4 million tons of slag-encrusted iron each year for return to the blast furnaces. Much of the success in developing uses for slag can be attributed to the efforts of the National Slag Association founded in 1918. Since then, it has conducted numerous field and laboratory investigations to demonstrate the properties and uses for slag and slag products. These investigations have resulted in total recognition of blast-furnace slag as a construction material of consequence. The American Society for Testing & Materials Designation C125 recognizes blast-furnace slag as "the nonmetallic product consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of

Jan 1, 1975

By E. A. Barnard

ARSENIC is a very old substance. The ancients speak of it in their writings, and its use has developed very little until recent years. The ancients used it in making pigments, in medicine, and for poison. They also tell of the difficulties of handling it-an experience which is very similar to our own. Until about 10 years ago, arsenic was very cheap and was a drug on the market. About that time the boll weevil began making serious inroads on the American cotton crops, and after much investigation the Depart-ment of Agriculture developed a very successful poison for this pest, consisting of calcium arsenate. The weevil pest has continued, and as the cotton planters have become convinced that calcium arsenate is the best material to use against the weevil, the demands for it have been steadily increasing, resulting not only in a rising price of arsenic but in a very serious shortage so far as our country is concerned. So serious has this shortage become, and so vital is it to the cotton growing industry, that Congress has appointed a committee to investigate and report on the situation. A meeting of arsenic producers and consumers was held in New York last December to take stock of the situation and to see what could be done. The extreme increase in, the market price of arsenic-from 6 c. to 15 c. per lb. in less than a year-has been very harmful to the producers as well as to the consumers. Some very interesting' data were brought out at this meeting, as follows: CONSUMPTION PER YEAR, SHORT TONS Arsenate of lead 2,000 Paris green 1,200 Proprietary mixtures 750 Sheep dips : 1,000 Weed killers 1,500 Glass : 2,000 8,450 1922 Consumption as calcium arsenate 4,000 12,450 1923 Estimated consumption as calcium arsenate... 12,000 Estimated 1923 consumption 20,450

Jan 8, 1923

By D. W. Fuerstenau

In recent years, various advances have taken place in the flotation recovery of fine mineral particles. A number of new approaches to recovery of fine particles have been proposed. In this paper, the background and performance of some of these tech- niques for fine particles processing are reviewed. A brief sum mary of the problems associated with fine particles in flotation and related processes is presented.

Jan 1, 1980

By G. C. Gould

The nature of freckle segregation is determined by chemical analyses, microradiograplzy, and electron microprobe. In addition, the influence of chemistry variation on freckle formation is studied in laboratory experiments. It is demonstrated that controlled laboratory solidification can produce freckle segregation. "FRECKLE" segregation is a discontinuous, rod-like segregation observed in vacuum consumable -electrode ingots. Figs. 1 and 2 show this segregation as pencil-like, dark etching areas of segregation found in longitudinally and transversely sectioned consumable-electrode ingots. In most cases the segregation is perpendicular with respect to gravity and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the ingot. The segregation is most often encountered at or around midradius in large vacuum consumable-electrode ingots. The austenitic alloys, A-286* and 718, † have shown particular susceptibility to this mode of segregation. The origin of these rodlike pockets of segregation is not well-understood. It has been suggested that the segregation is a result of a portion of the electrode dropping off and passing through the arc un-melted. On the other hand, smeltzer1 has demonstrated the freckle segregation in A-286 to be comprised of low-melting constituents relative to the matrix melting point. The discontinuous nature of the segregation is the most perplexing facet of the freckle-segregation problem. It was to gain some insight into this part of the problem that this work was undertaken. I) PROCEDURE At the outset of the work identification of the phases present and the elements concentrated in the freckle areas was undertaken. The electron micro-probe was used to determine general enrichment as well as -specific phase chemistry. Microradiography using cobalt and chromium radiation was also used on the freckle areas again to determine the elements involved in the segregation. X-ray diffraction patterns were made from portions of these same foil specimens. Optical microscopy and Knoop hardness measurements were also used

Jan 1, 1965

By H. S. McKnight

One phase of Canada's rapid development in mining and metallurgy during the past few years has been the creation of Canadian Copper Refiners Ltd., and the establishment of its modern electrolytic copper refinery at Montreal East, Quebec. Canadian Copper Refiners Ltd. is made up of three well-known metal firms whose combined activities cover the entire industry from the mine to the market. They are Noranda Mines Ltd., Toronto, Nichols Copper Co., New York, and British Metal Corporation, Ltd., London. Noranda Mines is the principal owner and provides the greater part of the raw material received by the refinery for treatment. Nichols Copper Co. designed and built the plant and is operating it under contract. British Metal Corporation acts as sales agent and markets the refinery's products. Montreal East was chosen as the site of the new refinery only after a careful survey had been made of the entire eastern part of Canada. The location chosen offers many advantages, chief of which arc the relatively low costs of power, labor, fuel and bupplies, and the fact that it is situated on Montreal harbor, the nearest seaport to the points of origin of the ram materials. All incoming material is received by rail. A majority of the plant's product is exported through the port of Montreal to European markets, being handled to the docks in railroad cars. A large proportion of the product is delivered by means of an industrial railway to the adjacent rolling mill of the Canada Wire & Cable Co., Limited. The refinery was designed to treat primarily the copper produced by Noranda Mines, Ltd. and Hudson Bay Mining &. Smelting Co., Ltd., and its rated capacity is 75,000 short tons per year. A general layout of the plant is shown in Fig. 1. Its capacity can be readily doubled, as shown by the dotted lines. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections taken through the furnace department and the tank house respectively. Except for the main office and laboratory and an auxiliary building containing the stores, warehouse, change rooms, compressor room and machine shop, the entire plant is under one roof. The type of building construction consists of reinforced concrete foundations supported on concrete piles, a steel structure covered with Robertson Protected Metal siding and a 3-in.

Jan 1, 1934

It is particularly interesting at this time to notice the recommendations of F. L. Bishop, clean of the University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering as to the types of engineers required and the training that should be given each type. Dr. Bishop's recommendations, which follow, are substantially the same as the first two recommendations made by resolution at the National Conference recently held to discuss commercial engineering problems. This provided business training for the engineer arid engineering training for commercial enterprises. Dr. Bishop says: "The first type is that of the man who may be called a technician, who is highly trained in science and mathematics, who possess the instinct of the research man and who can devote his entire time to highly technical research problems, either in the research laboratories which are now rapidly being developed in the large industries, or by applying the results of his research to engineering science. For the training of this type of man, there is needed the best of scientific equipment, the members of the faculty must be those who are intimately interested in research problems, and the student himself must have what is sometimes called a mathematical mind. It is doubtful if this type of nan can be developed in a four-year course under existing conditions. In fact, it is probable that such a man can be developed only M. a school which has a thorough graduate department. "The second type which seems to be demanded by the industries is the man who has a broad general knowledge of engineering subjects and can apply that knowledge in an effective way in present engineering problems. He must have ability to command men, a knowledge of the applications of economic principles to industries, and a broad training in the so-called humanities, since he is the man in contact with men of other types in other fields of human activities. He should not be a research man, his training in mathematics need not be of necessity so extensive as that of the research technician, but his understanding of engineering problems should be extensive. Such a man cannot be trained in the ordinary schools because of the artificial conditions which of necessity exist in academic institutions. He must become familiar with the industries while yet, a student in order that he may understand thoroughly the application of his theoretical courses in school and their application to industries, and also that he may become familiar in the formative period of life with the problems of labor and the human factor in engineering. It is in the development of this type of man, who is to become. the manager and operating head of our large manufacturing industries, that the advantages to be derived from the cooperative system of engineering education are needed."

Jan 9, 1919

By Richard D. Call

Data obtained from development drilling provide the basic input for open pit mine planning and design. Development drilling is defined as delineation of the size, mineral content, and disposition of an ore body by drilling boreholes (Thrush, 1968). The objectives of development drilling are: ( 1 ) determining the geometry of the mineralization, ( 2 ) determining the grade and tonnage, , ( 3 ) obtaining samples for metallurgical testing, and ( 4 ) obtaining geotechnical data for mine design. To accomplish these objectives, an appropriate drilling plan must include the number of holes, the spacing and orientation of the holes, and a suitable data collection program. The data collection program covers sample collection, hole logging, and data presentation. This chapter will present some guidelines for development drilling and data collection techniques. The operational aspects of drilling will be covered in an- other chapter.

Jan 1, 1979

By T. H. Aldrich

The Aldrich Mining Go. holds under lease from the Illinois Central R. R. Co. about 14,000 acres, in the east half of Township 12, Range 12 W., in Marion county, Alabama, and owns other lands, of which about 1,000 acres adjoin this leased tract, making a total area of about 15,000 acres, all of which is underlain by the coal-seam upon which the company is operating. This seam is nearly horizontal; and a ravine, diagonally crossing the tract, exposes the outcrop on either side for about 2 miles. The territory has been so divided that nearly the whole of it can be worked out by two collieries. The mines at Brilliant were opened in the fall of 1898, and shipments began in the following spring. The original plan was to furnish steam-coal for locomotives to the Illinois Central R. R. Co.; and upon this expectation the investment of capital was made. The field was entirely new; and the softness of the coal at the outcrop induced the belief that it could be very cheaply mined. A contract for the delivery of a large quantity of coal to the railroad was accordingly executed. But with the advance of' the entries to increasing distances from the outcrop, the coal proved so hard that it could no longer be drilled with a breast-auger; and the expense of mining became so great that the contract for cheap steam-coal had to be canceled. It became evident that the work must be done with machinery and explosives, if it could be profitably done at all. On the other hand, the excellent quality of this coal opened, at the same time, a possible market not specially contemplated at the outset—namely, that of a first-rate coal for domestic and general uses. Since no other deposit of such coal was known to exist on the line of the Illinois Central, or any other railroad

Jan 1, 1907

By O.W. Ellis

Recently there has been a considerable revival of interest in the effects of the various elements commonly added to brass for the purpose of increasing its strength. For many years the work of Guillet2 alone gave reliable information in this regard. Even today his determinations of the coefficients of equivalence of the various elements relative to zinc in brass are those universally employed in industry. This is so because these coefficients have stood the test of time—their substantial correctness has been proved in almost universal practice. It is not our intention to discuss here these coefficients or their use. Rather do we wish to emphasize the need for further systernatic studies of the mechanical properties of the ternary systems of copper, zinc, and other individual elements. Since Guillet published the results of his first investigations Millington, 16 Smalley33 and Thiband 45 have added somewhat to our information. In general they have confirmed the findings of Guillet, which may be stated in the following rather general terms: 1. The addition of aluminum to the 70:30 and 60:40 brasses progressively increases their hardness and strength and reduces their ductility and resistance to shock. 2. The addition of small amounts of iron to a 60:40 brass improves its strength without affecting its ductility. 3. The addition of small amounts of manganese to a 60:40 brass causes a progressive increase in its strength and reduction in its ductility. A considerable amount of information has been amassed in regard to the effect of nickel on brass (9, 22, 41) which it is unnecessary to refer to here, in view of the scope of this paper. The situation in regard to these alloys in 1926 was very clearly stated by an anonymous writer,47 in The Metallurgist of February of that year, whose remarks were so to the point that they are well worth quoting: It will he seen that there are still large fields remaining to be studied in each of these systems (those of the aluminum, iron, nickel and manganese brasses) before our knowledge is adequate. When we come to the more complicated systems the position is even less satisfactory, and on account of the very incomplete nature of the work which has been

Jan 1, 1929

By O. W. Ellis

Recently there has been a considerable revival of interest in the effects of the various elements commonly added to brass for the purpose of increasing its strength. For many years the work of Guillet2 alone gave reliable information in this regard. Even today his determinations of the coefficients of equivalence of the various elements relative to zinc in brass are those universally employed in industry. This is so because these coefficients have stood the test of time—their substantial correctness has been proved in almost universal practice. It is not our intention to discuss here these coefficients or their use. Rather do we wish to emphasize the need for further systernatic studies of the mechanical properties of the ternary systems of copper, zinc, and other individual elements. Since Guillet published the results of his first investigations Millington, 16 Smalley33 and Thiband 45 have added somewhat to our information. In general they have confirmed the findings of Guillet, which may be stated in the following rather general terms: 1. The addition of aluminum to the 70:30 and 60:40 brasses progressively increases their hardness and strength and reduces their ductility and resistance to shock. 2. The addition of small amounts of iron to a 60:40 brass improves its strength without affecting its ductility. 3. The addition of small amounts of manganese to a 60:40 brass causes a progressive increase in its strength and reduction in its ductility. A considerable amount of information has been amassed in regard to the effect of nickel on brass (9, 22, 41) which it is unnecessary to refer to here, in view of the scope of this paper. The situation in regard to these alloys in 1926 was very clearly stated by an anonymous writer,47 in The Metallurgist of February of that year, whose remarks were so to the point that they are well worth quoting: It will he seen that there are still large fields remaining to be studied in each of these systems (those of the aluminum, iron, nickel and manganese brasses) before our knowledge is adequate. When we come to the more complicated systems the position is even less satisfactory, and on account of the very incomplete nature of the work which has been

Jan 1, 1929

Jan 1, 1879