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By U. C. Tainton

THE world-wide continuation of low prices for zinc in 1934 has militated against any striking changes in the position of the metal. The price of zinc in London at the end of the year, about £11 5/8 per long ton, or 2.5c per pound at the existing rate of exchange, is more than 25 per cent below the average price for last year. In these circumstances probably the most significant event of the year was the putting into operation of the new electrolytic plant of the Giesches company at Magdeburg, Germany. This plant is designed to have an initial capacity of 20,000 long tons per year, and it is planned to increase this to 40,000 tons annually. This development is significant not only as indicating a continued swing of zinc metallurgy towards electrolytic methods, but also because it will make Germany virtually independent of foreign sources of zinc. This will mean that the zinc tonnage normally exported to Germany from Belgium and Poland will. become available for other markets, and it is feared may lead to lower prices unless the production of Bel-

Jan 1, 1935

By N. A. Gjostein

From their study of the anisotropy of grain boundary mobility in aluminum, the authors conclude that tilt boundaries have a higher mobility than twist boundaries because the atomic misfit at the pure-twist boundary is relatively small compared to the misfit at a tilt boundary for a given amount of misorientation. If this is true, then one would expect a twist boundary to have a lower grain boundary energy than the corresponding tilt boundary. Fig. 6, taken from the work of Gjostein and Rhines,10 shows that this is indeed the case for [001]-cu tilt and twist boundaries in the high-angle region, thus lending support to the authors' conclusion.

Jan 1, 1968

By J. H. Schulman, M. H. Buckenham

R. W. Christy (Manager of Sales, Sanitary Engineering Equipment, Link-Belt Co.) and C.D. Rubert (Barrett, Haentjens & Co.) — Messrs. King and Schepman have presented an excellent paper which outlines the general practice in the design of thickener mechanisms. Lifting devices, controls, special applications and underflow pumping arrangements have been reviewed in detail. Pumping arrangements were illustrated which eliminate the need for an expensive tunnel beneath the thickener floor. Most of those illustrated have the common feature of a relatively long underflow suction line extending from the hopper floor to the pump located on the bridge at the periphery of the tank. The authors limit these arrangements to comparatively dilute or thin slurrys. It is implied that dense and coarse concentrates, which are difficult to pump, cannot be handled unless a tunnel is constructed. Fig. 1 shows an underflow pump arrangement which negates the need for a tunnel but which permits the operator to convey a heavy dense slurry. The pump is mounted directly on the fixed hoist platform and the impeller is located at the base of the steel center column. Priming water is not needed. The column

Jan 1, 1963

By J. Blodget Britton

During the last three or four years I have had occasion to examine, chemically, various samples of matter commonly called flue-dust or cinder, found deposited in the flues and hot-blast chambers and under the boilers of blast furnaces, and also in the flues and under the boilers of puddling and boiling furnaces. Recently several of these examinations mere made quite in detail, and as the results reveal, I believe, information of no inconsiderable importance, I am induced to communicate them to this Institute. A sample of deposit obtained from the flues of one of the blast furnaces at the works of the Phœix Iron Company, at Phœnixville, Pa., was found to have the composition given in Column I of the following table: I. 11. 111. Composition of Dust from Dust from Dust from Deposits. Blast Furnace. Puddling Furnace. Boiling Furnace. Protoxide of iron,... 1.51 3 08 1.18 Peroxide of iron,... 20.21 33.29 41.00 Alumina,....6.57 12.89 7.54 Lime,.....3.98 .48 .61 Magnesia,.....69 .09 .19 Protoxide of manganese,. . 1.66 .39 .12 Oxide of zinc,....2.84 ........ Oxide of copper,. .. ..06 ........ Silicic acid,....36.00 40.69 38.99 Sulphuric acid,... 7.55 .43 Phosphoric acid,..94 ..94 Arsenious acid,. .. .38 Antimoniousacid,... trace.......... Chlorine,....03 ..03 Cyanogen,.....09 ........ Ammonia,.... trace......... Pottlsh with some sodn,. .. 16.61 ........ Carbonic acid,. .. .. .59 ........ Alkalies, undetermined matter, and loss,.......29 4.49 6.96 100.00 100 00 100.00 Metallic iron,. 16.31 25.70 29.64 Phosphorus,. .. .. .41* 1.55† 1.30†

By C. Gatlin, N. E. Garner, A. Podio

Experimental data from single chisel blows on Leuders limestone are presented. A pressure chamber, similar in design to well known microbit drilling chambers, was utilized to impose variorcs stress states on the sample. Confining pressure of zero to 10,000 psi and borehole pressures from zero to 5,000 psi have been used in the studies. Pore pressure was zero and the rock samples dry in all instances. Force-displacement records and visual examination of the craters indicate that the mode of failure depends on both confining and borehole pressure in certain ranges, ranging from brittle, through a transition, to near plastic. The mode of failure is reflected in the observed blow force and energy data, as well as the shape of force-penetration curves. INTRODUCTION A previous paper' presented initial data from the project on which this paper is the second report. While the first paper dealt with impact studies on synthetic rocks, the literature cited there is also pertinent to this paper, but will not be listed again in order to avoid needless repetition. This paper presents experimental data from single chisel impacts on limestone at certain simulated wellbore stress states. Specific variables investigated were combinations of borehole and confining pressure, crater geometry, a narrow range of impact velocity and the forces required to drive the chisel into the specimens under the varying conditions. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The same basic apparatus described in our earlier paper, except for the pressure vessel, was used in this study. Fig. 1 shows the complete experimental system. Fig. 2 shows details of the pressure cell, which is quite similar to the well known microbit drilling chamber. The confining (overburden) pressure system provides independent pressure control over the sample except for two, 21/4 in. diameter areas located on the sample ends. These two areas provide a pore pressure entrance on the bottom and a striking surface on the top where borehole pressure can be controlled. The ends are isolated from the confining pressure by O-ring seals. The borehole and pore pressures are related through the striking surface; they will be the same unless a seal is deposited on the borehole surface, either a mud cake or some other impermeable membrane. In these studies pore pressure control was not used, as the rocks were dry and unsaturated in all cases. Rock samples were prepared from 4-in. cubes as illustrated by Fig. 3. The circular disks of adhesive vinyl plastic protected the impact surface from the resin coating (Scotchcast No. 2) and were removed just prior to each test. This procedure insured a fresh uncontaminated surface for the impact. Fig. 4 shows the dimensions and loading of the sample, including the concentrations around the "borehole" periphery (O-ring seal). The rock used in this study was Leuders limestone, of Permian age (Leonard), quarried near Leuders, Tex. Geologically, Leuders limestone is a light gray, fossili-ferous limestone (oolitic foraminifera1 biosporite). Its fossil content is 80 to 90 per cent and consists primarily of calcitornellid, ostracods, pelecypods and oolites with the remaining part intraclasts. There are hematite or limo-nite rims on some of the intraclasts. The porosity is approximately 20 per cent, but the permeability is less than 1 md. There is no apparent orientation in the structure. Triaxial tests have been conducted to determine the variation of the physical properties of Leuders limestone in three orthogonal directions', and it is known to be unusually isotropic and uniform. Physical parameters for this rock are: uniaxial compressive strength = 9,700 psi; F = 32 and C = 2,700 psi; where + and C are Coulomb equation values (t = C+u tan +). Impact tests were run under the combinations of confining and borehole pressures shown in Table 1. Samples were dry with atmospheric pore pressure in all cases. Tests, in which elevated borehole pressures were applied, used a single layer of household Saran-Wrap to prevent horehole fluid invasion into the sample. This proved to be simple and reliable. The blunt wedge used in all the tests was 0.75 in. long and had an included angle of 60" with a 0.05-in. flat. In addition, a sharp 60" wedge was used for all confining pressures at zero borehole pressure. The chipper speed

CONTENTS RUSSIA-R. C.-BECKSTROM 3 VENEZUELA-F. H. KAY 9 TRINIDAD-W. J. MlLLARD 20 RUMANIA-1. I. GARDESCU 26

Jan 1, 1932

By Robert Poole

On June 20, 1974, delegations representing the governments of 150 nations convened in Caracas, Venezuela. The occasion: the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. (As this article goes to press, the conference is still in session-Ed). Of all the many issues to come before the conference, none is of greater long-term consequence than the issue of jurisdiction over the seabed-the "land" at the bottom of the world's oceans. On the agenda, with widespread support from a majority of UN members, is a proposal to declare seabed resources "the common heritage of mankind," under the sole jurisdiction of the United Nations. Any would-be miner of seabed minerals would have to apply to a UN seabed authority for a permit, and would be forced to pay the bulk of his profits to a UN fund to aid the underdeveloped countries.

Jan 9, 1974

By D. Weinstein

The high temperature mechanical properties of stainless steels after fast neutron irradiation are discussed in the light of effects caused by lattice dattmage and effects caused by helium generated from n,a transmutations. Embrittlement at high temperatures is due to helium accumulation at grain boundaries and to cavity formation and proPagation along grain boundaries. Following from the embrittlement mechanism, it is suggested that when deformation occurs by mechanisms associated with super plasticity, helium ac-curnulation at boundaries should be attenuated and cavities, if formed, should be nonpropagating. As the mean free Path between interphase boundaries of a two-phase Fe-Cr-Ni alloy was decreased, the degree of superplastic deforrnation at 870°C increased, as vneaszired by total elongation and by the expottent m = a log 'a/a log 'i. This alloy and type 304 stainless steel were cyclotron irradiated in an a-particle beam to a helium concentration of -1 x 10 atom He per atom. The stainless steel specimen was embrittled, but the ductility of irradiated two-phase Fe-Cr-Ni alloys correlated with the values of. m during 'defor-malion. The .finest grained, helium-injected specimens that deforrned with highest m values exhibited the largest elongations to ,fracture. These results could be correlated with metallographic observations of cavity behavior: the propensity for intergranular propagation was lessened as the m value increased. It is concluded that superplastic deformation is ef-fectizle in attenuating helium embrittlement at elevated temperatures. One of the principal problems associated with development of fast breeder reactors is application of alloys such that suitable fuel cladding results. Stainless steels and other Fe-Cr-Ni alloys, because of highly acceptable nuclear characteristics, represent the primary materials for this component, and an exhaustive research and development effort is being conducted. The main deficiency of these materials has been a severe loss of ductility at high temperatures after fast neutron irradiation. An extensive body of mechanical property data and microstructural observations has provided an adequate phenomenological description of embrittlement; in conjunction with transmission electron microscopy studies, a reasonably acceptable embrittlement mechanism has been obtained. Following from this mechanism, it is suggested in the present work that ductility would be enhanced if deformation could occur by mechanisms associated with the phenomenon of superplasticity. Experiments to test this hypothesis have been conducted, and the results are presented and discussed in this paper. IRRADIATION EMBRITTLEMENT AT HIGH TEMPERATURE Austenitic stainless steels have been irradiated to accumulated fast neutron fluences of 1020 to 1022 nvt at temperatures between 60" and 600°C. Specimens that have been exposed to these conditions and subsequently tensile tested at temperatures between 600" and about 900°C exhibit approximately 5 pct total elongation to fracture.'-3 For unirradiated specimens receiving a nearly identical thermal exposure, total elongation at these test temperatures is about 45 pct. Examination of irradiated specimens has shown that fracture propagation is entirely intergranular. These phenomenological aspects of irradiation embrittle-ment at elevated temperatures are well known and are not generally disputed. Although the explanation of this phenomenon has been controversial, a mechanism for ernbrittlement has emerged that accounts reasonably well for the observed mechanical behavior. The controversy resulted primarily from an indeterminate role of neutron-in-duced lattice damage, if any, and a presumed, but experimentally unverified, contribution to embrittle-ment from helium generated by n,a transmutations. Recently, Holmes and coworkers4 have conducted experiments that separate these effects, and the results are instructive in formulation of the ernbrittlement mechanism. Holmes el al.4 irradiated type 304 stainless steel in EBR-I1 to a fluence of 1.4 x 1022 nvt (E > 0.18 mev); the irradiation temperature was 538" * 48°C or, in terms of absolute melting point, 0.49 * 0.03 T,. After irradiation, tensile tests were conducted at temperatures of 21" to 870.C, the specimens first being annealed for 30 min at each test temperature. In addition, thin sections of irradiated specimens were annealed for 1 hr at identical temperatures, electro and examined by transmission electron microscopy. Thus, for a given temperature, it was possible to correlate mechanical properties with the defect structure. At room temperature, the yield stress of irradiated specimens was a factor of 2.5 higher than unirradi-ated specimens exposed to an equivalent thermal history. Electron microscopic examination of the irradiated specimen revealed a high density of lattice damage in the form of Frank sessile dislocation loops and polyhedral voids. Holmes et al.4 concluded that the presence of this defect substructure caused the increase in yield stress and that after irradiation in a fast neutron flux at 0.49 Tm, substantial lattice dam-age persists. Annealing at progressively higher tem-

Jan 1, 1970

By Michael Hoch, Walter C. Wyder

The Cr-Ni system was investigated between 900" and 1400°C and 45 to 100 wt pct Cr. The Cr-Fe system was studied between 1200" and 1385°C and 70 to 100 wt pct Cr. Powdered alloy compacts were produced from high-purity chromium, nickel, and iron poulders. The compacts were sintered in an argon atmosphere and then machined into small, 0.030-in. diam cylindrical specimens. These were then heated by induction in the high-temperature X-ray diJfractwn camem under a helium atmosphere and irradiated with copper Ka radiation. From the results of the high-temperature X-ray diffraction patterns it can be concluded that chromium exists only in the bcc form, and that no eutectoid reaction occurs in the Cr-Ni system in the temperature interval 900" to 1400°C. The X-ray diffraction patterns are in agreement with the Cr-Ni phase diagram of Bechtoldt and Vacher, and Williams. It is possible that chromium undergoes one or more allotropic transformations between room temperature and its melting point. Most of the evidence was gathered from the study of the chromium-rich ends of the Cr-Ni and Cr-Fe binary systems. All the investigations rely heavily on indirect methods: thermal analysis, electrical resistivity, and micro-graphic inspection of quenched samples. In the present work the chromium-rich side of the Cr-Ni and Cr-Fe binary systems is studied, using high-temperature X-ray diffraction techniques. Thus the coexistent structures can be observed directly at temperature. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS ~ansenl shows two possible Cr-Ni phase diagrams 1) a simple eutectic [Liquid =a-Cr(bcc) + y-Ni(fcc)], 2) a eutectic [Liquid+ P-Cr(fcc) + y-Ni(fcc)] and euctectoid [p-Cr(fcc) ==a-Cr(bcc) + yNi(fcc)]. The latter is based on the work of Grant and co-workers.2 Stein and rant'" placed the eutectoid composition at 1215°C and 68 wt pct Cr; their diagram is shown in Fig. l. Similarly, Sully3 also discusses the two proposed diagrams. Price and Grant,4 working on an isothermal section of the Cr-Ni- Fe ternary diagram at 1300°C, made no mention of a ß-chromium phase (fcc). The ß-chromium structure was also reported by Misencik 5 in the Cr-Nb(Cb) system. Williams 6 studied the Cr-Ni system using precipitation techniques. His work included the chromium and nickel solvus lines below 1250°C. He reported no ß structure nor any eutectoid reaction. The solvus lines which he produced were very similar to those of Jette, et al 7 below 1000°C. He concluded that Grant and coworkers2 had misinterpreted their data, and that effects which they had reported were actually due to the rapid and extensive precipitation of the nickel-rich phase. Bechtoldt and vacher8 used sintered powdered alloy compacts in an attempt to find the ß phase. They used metallographic and room-temperature X-ray diffraction techniques and also failed to detect the fcc chromium phase. They attributed the low slope of the chromium solvus at approximately 1150°C as the probable cause of the abundant precipitation obtained. They also stated that the precipitation was the probable cause for the abrupt discontinuities in the thermal analysis and electrical resistivity data which led to the conclusion that a eutectoid reaction existed. Fig. 1 also shows their diagram. Grigor'ev and coworkers9 investigated the polymorphic changes of chromium in the Cr-Ni phase diagram. Using standard microstructural and thermal analysis techniques, they published a phase diagram which contained five polymorphic forms of pure chromium and four eutectoid reactions. They stated that the room-temperature bcc chromium transformed to a fcc structure at 930°C, to bcc at 1300°C, to hcp at 1650oC, and then finally to bcc at 1830°C. The eutectoid reactions were placed at 850°, 960o, 1140°, and 1220°C. Also to be noted was the fact that the uppermost phase, the bcc above 1830°C, was different from the upper phase of Grant and coworkers,2 the fcc above 1840°C. Their eutectoid reactions, temperatures and compositions fall

Jan 1, 1963

By R. G. Jones, W. L. Kinney, R. E. Schilson, R. S. Wilson, G. A. Clark, H. Suralo

This paper discusses the results of the Fry conventional or cocurrent in situ combustion test, which was conduct-ed in a 3.3-acre inverted five-spot. The depth of the formation was between 880 and 936 ft; the oil had a specific gravity of 28.6° APl and a viscosity of about 40 cp at the reservoir temperature of 65°F. Preceding the combustion test, air injection tests were conducted which, in conjunction with geological studies, were used to evaluate the characteristics of the reservoir. Combustion was initiated on Oct. 13, 1961, with ignition being accomplished by a 40 kw electrical heater. The test phase of the project ended on Oct. 1, 1963. During the test, the average air injection rate was 1,520.-000 scf/D. Throughout the test, production of all fluids— gas, oil, and water—was monitored. Cumulative oil production credited to the project was 100,586 bbl. The cumulative air-oil ratio was 11,500 scf/bbl oil, and the oxygen uti1ization efficiency was 87 per cent. INTRODUCTION The Marathon Oil Co. conducted a successful in situ combustion test, beginning Aug. 22, 1961, at the Fry unit, Crawford County, 111. The purpose of the project was to test the feasibility of cocurrent in situ combustion as a means of oil recovery in the Fry type reservoir. Interest in in situ combulstion as an oil recovery tool has been stimulated mostly by the existence of large reserves of heavy viscous crudes with low expected recovery, usually less than 10 per cent. These are the so-called unrecoverable reserves, and most combustion tests to date have been conducted in this type of reservoir.1-4 In contrast, the Fry combustion test was conducted in a reservoir with a relatively high gravity oil having a relatively low viscosity. This paper discusses the performance of the test. The geology of the reservoir and the field operations are discussed in separate papers.5 TEST SITE The Fry combustion test was carried out in a 3.3-acre inverted five-spot portion of a lenticular body of Robinson sandstone. Net sand was 50 ft thick, porosity averaged 19.7 per cent, oil saturation was 68 per cent of pore volume, and water saturation was 20 per cent of pore volume. The oil in place was estimated at 1,040 bbl/acre-foot, or 171,600 bbl within the 3.3-acre pattern. The water in place was 326 bbl/acre-foot, or 53,800 bbl. The oil has a specific gravity of 28.7° API and a viscosity of 40 cp at the reservoir temperature of 65°F. AIR INJECTION PERFORMANCE Air injection took place in two phases, the phases separated by ignition of the reservoir. In the pre-ignition phase, air injection tests were conducted in the summers of 1960 and 1961. These indicated that the Fry reservoir was confined, and a high return rate of injected air could be expected. This proved to be an outstanding characteristic of the project, as cumulative gas production was 95.3 per cent of the air injected. The difference between the cumulative air injected and the total gas produced can be largely accounted for by the quantity of air stored in the reservoir. An estimated 16 X 10 cf of air remained in the burned-out portion of the reservoir and an indeterminate amount of gas was stored in the unburned but pressurized reservoir. Hence, a complete material balance of gases would account for nearly 100 per cent of the air injected. At times during the test, the daily gas production rate was 98 per cent of the daily air injection rate. Fig. 1 presents the air injection history of the Fry com-

Jan 1, 1966

By E. V. Kleber, V. F. Novy, R. C. Vickery

The constitutional diagram has been determined for the system gadolinium-nickel. Nine intermetallic compounds have been found at compositions corresponding to the following gadolinium-nickel ratios: 3:1, 3:2, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:7, 1:4, 1:5, 2:17. The GdNi and GdNi5 compounds have congruent melting points of 1300' and 1500°C, respectively while the remaining compounds melt in-congruently. Eutectics exist at 15 wt pct Ni, 31 1/2 wt pct Ni and 87 wt pct Ni with melting points of 6703 8803 and 1220°C, respectively. IN a continuing investigation of the properties of rare earth alloys, a study has been made of the gadolinium-nickel system. Previous work encompassed the iron containing alloys and a subsequent paper will deal with the constitution of the gadolinium-cobalt system. Vogel,1 examined alloys of nickel with lanthanum and cerium. R3Ni, RNi, RNi2, RNi3, RNi4, and RNi5 compounds were found. Endter and Klemm,2 Fulling et al.3 Heumann,4 and Nowotny5 found the 1:2 compositions of this series to exist in a C-15 (face-centered cubic) structure, and the 1:5 compositions in a hexagonal system. Jepson and Duwez6 more recently examined these 1:2 and 1:5 compositions and generally confirmed earlier data while Wernick and Geller7 most recently have given additional data on the GdNi5 compound. Comparisons with our results will be made in the appropriate section of this report. EXPERIMENTAL Methods of alloy preparation, annealing procedures, and experimental techniques have been given in our earlier paper.8 Chemical analyses of the alloy samples were made by dissolving the specimen in nitric acid, precipitating the gadolinium as hydroxide and the nickel with dimethylglyoxime. Both precipitates were ignited to oxide and weighed. RESULTS Microstructure— Metallography of alloy specimens in this series has been conducted on both arc-melted and annealed materials. Etchants used have been 5 pct nital with approximately 10 pct distilled water added, for high gadolinium samples; Carapella's ferric chloride solution for intermediate compositions; and Marble's (copper sulfate) reagent for high nickel content alloys. Because of difficulties encountered in the grinding and polishing of specimens containing 40 to 75 wt pct Ni, no photomicrographs were made of such specimens. The microstructure of an arc-melted 5.3 wt pct Ni alloy is shown in Fig. 1. Light etching primary grains of gadolinium are embedded in an eutectic matrix. The microstructure of an alloy of 9.55 wt pct Ni alloy, Fig. 2, annealed 50 hr at 700°C, consists almost entirely of the intermetallic compound Gd3Ni. The structure of an arc metal alloy of approximately 19 pct Ni, Fig. 3, consists of grains of the compound GdNi embedded in the Gd3Ni2-Gd3Ni eutectic. The arc-cast structure of the 38.7 wt pct Ni alloy is shown in Fig. 4. Large primary grains of a compound rest in a matrix structure of coarse GdNi-GdNiz eutectic. Because of the occurrence of several peritectic compounds in the central region of the diagram, identification of the primary structure in this alloy is not certain. As has been indicated above, microstructures of alloy specimens containing between ca 40 and 75 wt pct Ni have not been photographed. These specimens were highly brittle, and macro- and micro-cracking were impossible to control in the grinding and polishing procedures. Prolonged annealing did not alleviate this condition. Visual observations in small specimens did, however, provide evidence for a multiplicity of phases and peritectic dissociations of compounds although rationalization of structures was not possible.

Jan 1, 1962

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, Captain, Royal Garrison Artillery. ANDERSON, GEORGE K., JR., Lieutenant, 30th Co., 3d Replacement Regiment. ARMSTEAD, H. H., Captain, Quartermaster Corps, U. S. N. A. ARMSTRONG, HAROLD KERR, Student Flight Officer, U. S. Naval Reserve Flying Corps, Dunwoody Naval Training Station, Minneapolis, Minn. BAKER, HARRY A., Captain, Co. M, 53d Pioneer Infantry. BASSETT, THOMAS E., Corporal, 340th. Field Artillery, Battery A, 89th Division, A. E. F. BATES, Wm.. T., 3d Reserve Officers' Training Camp. BAUMMGARTEN, K., 1st Lieutenant, 1st Corps School A. P. 0. 703. BAYLESS, G. E. S., Supply Dept., U. S. Submarine Base, New London, Conn. BENSEL, J. A., Major, U. S. R., Board of Control, War. Construction Activities, Norfolk, Va. BILLICK, DON C., Co. C, Ordnance. Supply School. BILLINGSLEY, PAUL, 1st Lieutenant, National Army, Statistics Branch,. General Staff. BLANDY, S. H. B., B. E. F.

Jan 8, 1918

By Lewis E. Dr. Young

MINING engineers in the United States understand that mining conditions in the British coalfields are much more difficult than in most of the mines now being operated in the United States. We realize also that in the near future we must face some of these same difficult problems. Early Mechanization The progress made in mechanical loading in the United States is the result of a long struggle in many coalfields to mine with power tools safely and to increase output per man-shift. Attempts to use power to loosen coal and to transport broken coal in the U. S. may be said to date from the Stanly Header, or Entry-Driver brought from England in 1888. The principle of this boring machine was used in the McKinlay Entry-Driver, almost continuously used in the U. S. since 1920. Since 1888 experimental loaders, scrapers, and conveyors were installed with more or less success. Beginning in 1918, considerable progress was made with mobile loaders, and in 1920 the first wage agreement for the operation of mechanical loaders was made in Indiana. In 1923 the Pocahontas Fuel Co. loaded nearly 1 million tons of coal using 23 Coloders. Labor Policy The United Mine Workers of America have never officially opposed the Mechanization movement. On December 10, 1945, in a statement before the House of Representatives Labor Committee, John L. Lewis said, regarding the policy of the United Mine Workers of America: "We have welcomed progress; we have welcomed machines. We have told our people that they had to accept that condition; that it was the process of progress, and that they would have to take their chances." Recent Development In 1951 about 71 pct of the tonnage mined underground was mechanically loaded. Over 4000 shuttle cars are in service and it is estimated that much more than half of the tonnage loaded underground is produced by trackless mining. In 1947 roof-bolting was introduced extensively and it is estimated that more than 2 ½ million bolts are now being used per month in about 600 mines. The use of roof bolts has permitted the more effective and safer use of loaders and shuttle-cars. Continuous Mining The McKinlay Entry-Driver could have been used for continuous mining, but for many years it was used only .for entry driving. In 1946 the Silver machine was developed in Colorado, and in 1947 this was acquired by the Joy Mfg. Co. and called the Joy Continuous Miner. Other types of combination mining-loading machines which eliminate drilling and blasting operations are the Marietta Miner, the Colmol, the Lee-Norse Miner, the Junior Miner, the Goodman and the Konnerth machines. There are several other types in the process of development. Probably by January 1953 there will be about 250 continuous miners in operation in the U. S. Payment of Mine Labor One of the most important problems in mechanizing was the establishing of rates of pay that would be attractive to the best men. Prior to the installation of mobile loaders the hand loaders and cutters have been paid by the ton. It was felt that a system of a day's pay should be established and that piece and tonnage rates should be abolished completely. Without exception, all coal loaded in mines equipped with mobile loaders is prepared and loaded by men paid an hourly rate. Trends in Mining Research There are two diverse approaches in coal production research; to try to design a mining machine to fit current methods, or to adapt mining practice to take advantage of proven machines. A great deal of credit must go to the mine operators who have been enterprising and dynamic enough to use available equipment intensively and to discard it as soon as an improved or new machine is available. Effect of Changing Markets Formerly there was an important demand for lump and prepared coal in the larger sizes for domestic use. The use of bituminous coal for house heating has decreased so that not more than 19 pct of the annual tonnage goes to retail trade, only 12 pct is used by the railroads, and much of the retail and most of the railroad coal is in stoker size. As a result of this decline in the market for coarse coal most of the large mining operations have crushers installed in the tipples or preparation plants. Mass production at the face requires increased preparation facilities. Another important trend is in connection with complete seam mining with mechanical loading. In many mines where the immediate roof is apt to fall with the coal no effort is made to separate roof material from coal prior to

Jan 1, 1952

THE paper on "Cross-cuts in Coal Mining," by J. J. Rutledge (published in MINING AND METAL-LURGY, February, 1927, p. 64) was brought up for discussion at the annual meeting, where the follow-ing comments were made T. D. Thomas (Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., Lansford, Pa.) : This question has caused me a lot of worry, not in the particular district in which I am, but throughout other districts. There are always several angles to consider. If you are in a hurry to push development work, you might increase the distance between cross-cuts from 60 to 350 ft., but if you have a 40-ft. chain pillar every 60 ft. it will cut down your entry driving a whole lot. Looking at it from the ventilation angle, I agree that too many cross-cuts in entries are bad things. You have a tremendous amount of leakage, and I have seen currents starting out with 45,000 cu. ft., and after passing about 30 or 40 cross-cuts the current has dwindled down to about 18,000 or 15;000 cu. ft. The result is that the question of putting in auxiliary fans is raised. That involves several points into which I do not want to go too far, but I am in favor of not getting in too many cross-cuts, putting them in only where they are necessary: I think the state mining laws are wrong in a number of places on that, and that when you finish with a cross-cut it should be in the room. It should be well sealed on an entry. There are several ways of tightening up the cross-cuts so as not to have the great amount of leakage and wastage of: air that we now have. 'I prefer tile stopping; other people prefer cement or brick, but there is a big fac-tor to all mines, saving the mine. I checked up on the number of fans in the anthracite region and found there are 651. That was derived from the state report of 1921, and it enabled me to compute from the power the weight of the air. In the anthracite region of Pennsylvania we put in 9 tons of air to every ton of coal we get out. Tracing that back again and taking the Government's figures which they made some time ago, I found but 20 per cent of the air got to the faces where it was actually needed. That is a tremendous big loss and shows a possibility for saving, money for the various coal companies. Chairman Rice: I think what Mr. Thomas refers to was an investigation by R. Y. Williams, of the Bureau of Mines in Illinois, where a study was made of 100 typical mines, and, speaking off-hand, my recollection is that we found as little as 15 per cent of air reached the faces in one of the mines and another was as much as 50. That seems to be a reflection on the type of stoppings and general ventilation scheme.

Jan 3, 1927

By E. W. Henderson

Development work in the state of Utah in 1935 consisted of additional work done on wildcat tests started in previous years and on a number of new wildcat tests started during the year. No effort was made to extend areas or to discover deeper productive horizons in proven fields. Principal areas of development were in Daggett County, northeastern Utah; Grand and Emery counties, east-central Utah; and in Washington County, southwestern Utah. Daggett County Clay Basin.—The Mountain Fuel Supply Co. deepened Murphy No. 2, sec. 21, T.3N., R.24E., from 6030 to 6790 ft. for a test of the Sundance formation. Two sandstone members at 6520 to 6644 ft. and 6737 to 6790 ft. contained water. The hole was plugged back to 5860 ft. and left as a future gas supply for the Salt Lake City-Ogden pipe line. The failure of the Sundance formation to produce in this test, in view of the recent Sundance discoveries in Colorado arid Wyoming, was disappointing Emery County Last Chance.—-Thc wildcat test of the Rainsey Petroleum Corporn-tion, Well No. 1-X, sec. 18, T.26S., R.7E., completed plugging back from total depth of 3168 ft. to 2771 ft. and was shut in as a gas well. A gas sand at 2724 to 2771 ft. produced approximately 21 million cubic fert. A deep test of the structure will be started upon approval of a wit plan of development. Grand County Cisco.—-The wildcat test of the Utah Southern Oil Co., sec. 33, T.22S., R.22E., of which the total depth was 1720 ft. on Dec. 31, 1935, is the most interesting operation ill the state. Location of the test was deter-

Jan 1, 1936

By E. W. Henderson

Development work in the state of Utah in 1935 consisted of additional work done on wildcat tests started in previous years and on a number of new wildcat tests started during the year. No effort was made to extend areas or to discover deeper productive horizons in proven fields. Principal areas of development were in Daggett County, northeastern Utah; Grand and Emery counties, east-central Utah; and in Washington County, southwestern Utah. Daggett County Clay Basin.—The Mountain Fuel Supply Co. deepened Murphy No. 2, sec. 21, T.3N., R.24E., from 6030 to 6790 ft. for a test of the Sundance formation. Two sandstone members at 6520 to 6644 ft. and 6737 to 6790 ft. contained water. The hole was plugged back to 5860 ft. and left as a future gas supply for the Salt Lake City-Ogden pipe line. The failure of the Sundance formation to produce in this test, in view of the recent Sundance discoveries in Colorado arid Wyoming, was disappointing Emery County Last Chance.—-Thc wildcat test of the Rainsey Petroleum Corporn-tion, Well No. 1-X, sec. 18, T.26S., R.7E., completed plugging back from total depth of 3168 ft. to 2771 ft. and was shut in as a gas well. A gas sand at 2724 to 2771 ft. produced approximately 21 million cubic fert. A deep test of the structure will be started upon approval of a wit plan of development. Grand County Cisco.—-The wildcat test of the Utah Southern Oil Co., sec. 33, T.22S., R.22E., of which the total depth was 1720 ft. on Dec. 31, 1935, is the most interesting operation ill the state. Location of the test was deter-

Jan 1, 1936

By Charles Catlett

While the occurrence of phosphorus in coking-coal has assumed less importance with the development of the opeu-hearth method of steel-making, it may not be without interest to note the form in which phosphorus exists in one particular coal-seam. In the examination of what is known as the Big seam, which outcrops a few miles west of Columbiana, Ala., my attention was called to the distribution through the coal, in the form of minute veins and particles, of a resinous-looking substance. A small amount of this was selected, and was provisionally identified as evansite (Al6 Y2 O14, 18 Aq). Subsequently, through the courtesy of Dr. J. Sharshall Grasty, of the Geological Department of the University of Virginia, I was able to secure an additional amount of material, which was purified down to about 0.3 g. This was examined by Prof. John J. Porter, of the University of Cincinnati, and gave the following partial analysis: Per Cent. Loss on ignition,......... 37.43 Phosphoric anhydride,..10.33 Alumina,..........36.33 There was also a trace of silica, and quite a considerable quantity of lime and magnesia. Professor Porter was led to think that the material was not pure, but a mixture of several of the phosphates of aluminum carrying lime and magnesia. The material available did not permit of the convenient determination of the other ingredients. One form in which phosphorus occurs in coal is evidently as a hydrated phosphate of aluminum; and any coal which shows to the eye the occurrence of a light-colored resinous-looking material should be looked on with suspicion as being high in phosphorus.

Jan 1, 1912

By R. F. Hehemann, S. T. Zegler

The w phase in zirconium alloys containing more than G pct Nb can form in a difjUsionless manner during quenching or with composition change during aging at temperatures below 550°C. The latter treatment establishes a metastable equilibrium between an w phase containing 5 pct Nb and a ß phase containing 45 pct Nb. The superconducting transition temperat~ire of quenched Z?-10 pct Nb and Zr-15 pct Nb alloys is increased by aging at 375°C and both alloys exhibit the same Tc after prolonged aging. The superconducting transition both in the quenched and in the aged alloys is relatively sharp (occurring ovev a temperature range of <0.5°K), and is interpreted in terms of the microstructure that characterizes the ß-w) mixture and proximity effects postulated for thin-film superconductors. At elevated temperatures alloys of the transition elements from groups 4 to 6 in the periodic table exhibit wide ranges of mutual solubility in the bcc structure. Except for compositions that are high in a group 4 element? the bcc structure can be retained at room temperature by quenching and several systematic studies of the influence of composition on superconductivity in bcc alloys have been reported.&apos;&apos;2 The high-temperature bcc form (ß) of the group 4 elements—titanium, zirconium, hafnium—is not retained upon quenching but instead transforms marten-sitically to the hcp structure (a). The Ms temperature can be lowered by alloying the group 4 metals with a solute from a higher group and with a critical amount of solute the martensitic transformation can be suppressed. The 3 phase, however, is not retained without modification. Rather, a metastable phase, w (in particular in titanium- and zirconium-base alloys), occurs over a fairly wide range of compositions above that required for suppression of the martensitic transformation.3,4 As in the formation of a, the transformation of ß to w occurs in a diffusionless manner during quenching and the temperature for its initiation (ws) is lowered by increasing solute content. The ws temperature can be well below room temperature and reversibility of the transformation allows w that forms on cooling to low temperatures to disappear again when the sample is returned to room temperature.5 In Zr-Nb alloys the w phase can also be formed during aging at temperatures below 550°c.5 In this treatment, a metastable equilibrium is established between a niobium-rich ß phase and a zirconium-rich w phase. The present study of Zr-Nb alloys was undertaken to examine the influence of microstructure: as controlled by composition and heat treatment, on the superconducting transition temperature, Tc. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE The alloys were prepared from zirconium crystal bar that was spectrochemically pure except for 30 ppm of Al, 40 ppm of Cu, 100 ppm of Fe, and 1 ppm of each B and Pb. The niobium used was 99.5+ pct pure containing according to the suppliers&apos; (Stauffer Chemical Co.) analysis a maximum of 50 ppmO, 60 ppm of N, 30 ppm of C, 5 ppm of H, 200 ppm of Ta, 50 ppm of Mo, and 15 ppm each of Fe, Co, and Ni. The alloys were prepared in the form of buttons weighing approximately 4 g by arc melting on a water-cooled copper hearth in an inert-gas atmosphere. All alloys were heat-treated in the ß-phase region for 3 days at 1000°C and water-quenched. For heat treatment, the specimens, 0.5 cm in diam by 1.0 cm long, were wrapped in zirconium foil and sealed in an inert-gas atmosphere inside quartz capsules. Quenching was done by breaking the capsules under water. Subsequent aging treatments of Zr-10 pct Nb and Zr-15 pct Nb alloys were done by placing the specimens in a lead bath at 375°C and quenching in chilled brine. The phases present in the quenched and aged alloys were identified by optical and X-ray metallography. X-ray powder patterns were taken at room temperature with a 114.6-mm-diam Debye-Scherrer camera and CuK-a radiation. Superconducting transition temperatures were determined from magnetic-permeability measurements6 in a 10 oe field. The superconducting transition temperature was determined from a plot of galvanometric deflection as a function of temperature by extrapolation of the linear portion of the curve to zero deflection. In Figs. 1 and 3 the arrows indicate the temperature range of the transitions. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Superconductivity in Quenched Alloys. In Fig. 1 Tc for alloys quenched from 1000°C is plotted against nominal composition. Indicated also in Fig. 1 are results of metallographic studies. Alloys containing less than 5 pct Nb transform martensitically to a during quenching from 1000°C and Fig. 1 demonstrates that Tc increases significantly as the niobium concentration in a is increased. On the basis of the Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer theory of superconductivity7 it seems most likely that this increase in Tc results from an increase in the density of electronic states as zirconium is alloyed with niobium. This increased density of states has been revealed clearly in low-temperature specific-heat measurements.8 The martensitic transformation to a is suppressed when the alloy content exceeds 5 pct Nb. In the range from approximately 6 to 30 pct Nb, quenched alloys consist of a mixture of B and w phases and the amount

Jan 1, 1967

By L. E. Porter

El Segundo field is about 14 miles southwest of the central portion of the city of Los Angeles, immediately adjacent to the town of El Segundo and the Standard Oil Company&apos;s El Segundo refinery site. The field is served and bisected by several major highways connecting the beach cities on the west side of the Los Angeles Basin. The exact location of the field and its position with respect to other producing areas is shown on the map covering this portion of the Basin (Fig. I). The Republic Petroleum Co. discovered the first commercial production in the area when it completed its El Segundo No. 1 (sec. 18, T. 3 S. R. 14 W.) at a depth of 7402 ft. on Aug. 24, 1935, flowing at the rate of about 400 bbl. per day, 28" gravity oil. The producing horizon in this well consists of about 72 ft. of conglomerate and schist conglomerate situated below the nodular shale (Miocene). The true (or solid) schist (Franciscan) was encountered and penetrated some 20 ft. in the bottom of the hole. This paper gives a report on the history of development and oil production to date, and also submits the writer&apos;s interpretation of structural conditions as determined from such development. The limited development, together with the complex and variable nature of the producing horizon, makes any interpretation of the structure at present only tentative, and any forecast for a given well extremely hazardous. History of Oil and Gas Production The El Segundo field has produced approximately 1,920,000 bbl. of oil. It has 27 producing wells and 14 drilling wells or locations. The present daily rate of production is about 13,400 bbl. The production history of the field to date is shown in Table 1. The principal companies operating or owning leases in this field are: Caminol Company, Geo. F. Getty, Inc., Ohio Oil Co., Republic Petroleum Co., Pacific Western Oil Corporation, Royalty Service Corporation, Richfield Oil Corporation, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company, Union Oil Company.

Jan 1, 1938

By Persifor Frazer

General Geology of the Northern Black Hills. The " Black Hills of Dakota," to the northern part of which the following observations apply, occupy a position on either side of the boundary between Wyoming and South Dakota, approximately between 103" 15&apos; and 104" 48&apos; of west longitude and 43 15&apos; to 43" 50&apos; of north latitude. The area is roughly 4160 square miles.* (See Plate I.) As has been pointed out by Profs. H. O. Hofman, I?. R. Carpenter and others, and illustrated by Mr. Newton in the publications of the United States Geological Survey, these hills are made up of a large number of the known formations from the Archean to the Tertiary, which latter constitutes the border of the region. The mining operations are largely confined to the interior of this area, and the centers from which they are conducted (Deadwood, Lead City, Galena, etc.) are situated near the line of junction of the Archean schists and quartzite, supposed to represent the Potsdam Sandstone of the N. Y. series, or the lowest of the Paleozoic measures. The Archean or pre-Paleozoic rocks consist mainly of a mica-schist in which hornblende and garnet are frequently

Jan 1, 1898