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By H. Cecil Spicer

The results described in this article are based on field work conducted during the periods APril-May, 1939, and MaY-JulY, 1940. The United States Potash CO. is mining potash on Government land under a permit from the Department of the Interior and the geophysical investigation mas completed under a cooperative arrangemerit made between that company and the Conservation Branch of the Geological Survey. The writer, a member of the Section of Chemistry and Physics of the Geologic Branch, was assigned to this investigation. Four definite objectives were in mind for the geophysical work in the studies over the salt deposits. The first was to determine the measure of success that could be attained in this type of work with the resistivity methods that were to be employed. These methods had been introduced into the work of the Conservation Branch by Benjamin E. Jones for the investigation of dam sites, and have been used under his direction by the author for such work. If the method proved to be applicable, an l was to be made to contour the top of the salt beds and also the other formation boundaries known to be present in this area. Salt-water aquifers were to be studied in an effort to determine their boundaries, and an attempt was to be made to delineate the potash-bearing beds. Others have made, and reported, resistivity studies over saliferous deposits in different areas. Friedell and Messrs. Schlumberger2 reported geophysical work performed in the disrovery of the salt domes of Alsace; Carrette and Kelly3 described the geology of the same area. Leonardon and Kelly4 published a resistivity curve obtained over the Hettenschlag dome, and a further discussion of this same area was given by the Messrs. Schlum-berger5 in a communication. Messrs. Alty6 described studies 0" salt deposits in which the sing[e-probe method was used. Sinerez7 mentions that electrical methods were tried over salt deposits in Spain. Geoffrey and Charrin8 show a resistivity curve obtained over marl, gypsiferous marl and salt which is similar to that obtained over the New Mexico salt deposits. Kelly9 reported resistivity work performetl with the ground comparator of Zuschlag over the salt deposits near Syracuse, N. Y., where the Salina formation is at a depth of 700 to 800 ft. Some structural studies on the potash basin of Alsace are described by Poldini.10 Another single-probe resistivity study, made over salt deposits in New Mexico, is briefly described by Heiland,ll through the courtesy of Harry Aurand, of the Midwest Refining CO.

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter Miller

BY the beginning of 1945 the output of petroleum products for war had reached a volume and a rate of growth which practically assured all requirements so long as war continued. The programs for making gasoline, lubricating oils of required quality, toluene for T.N.T., and chemicals for manufacture of synthetic rubber, as well as numerous other lesser petroleum products, were all well in hand, and unless catastrophic developments occurred there was no doubt of the ability of the industry to meet all demands. The end of the fighting found the refining industry working at top capacity on war commodities, but also in position to convert quickly into peacetime civilian production. 100-octane Aviation Gasoline Production of the vital 100-octane aviation gasoline, starting with approximately 44,000- bbl. daily capacity at our entry into the war, reached a top of 525,000 bbl. a day in the United States by the end of hostilities. With 75,- bbl. from other Allied sources, the grand total was 600,000 bbl., or 25,000,000 gal. each 24 hr. available to the armed forces had fighting continued. At times it was a close race between requirements and production, but never were any important military operations involving the use of high-octane aviation gasoline held up or delayed for lack of sufficient output of such material. The undivided effort of the entire refining industry in full cooperation with the Government made this record possible. Little diminution in output followed the German surrender on May 7. Plans called for a correspondingly greater activity for the Japanese war and possibly for well into 1946. But when the Japanese sued for peace on Aug. 10 most contracts were quickly canceled. Substantial stocks, reputed to be somewhere between 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 bbl., built up largely between V-E and V-J day pending organization of the larger Japanese war program envisaged after Germany gave up, were in the Government's hands in this country, in addition to working stocks in the war areas. Toluene and Lubricating Oil Requirements for toluene for T.N.T. increased rapidly as bombing speeded UP with increasing control of the air by the Allies in Europe and Asia. Production in excess of T.N.T. requirements which had been going into 1000-Octane aviation fuel blending during 1943 and 1944 was again drawn into explosive manufacture early in 1945. In anticipation of the war continuing into 1946, two new plants were ordered constructed, the decision being announced in April, plans calling for one of them to get into production about the end of 1945, the other in the first quarter of 1946. Both of these projects were later canceled as victory made it evident that the additional supplies would not be needed. Production was

Jan 1, 1946

By Walter Miller

BY the beginning of 1945 the output of petroleum products for war had reached a volume and a rate of growth which practically assured all requirements so long as war continued. The programs for making gasoline, lubricating oils of required quality, toluene for T.N.T., and chemicals for manufacture of synthetic rubber, as well as numerous other lesser petroleum products, were all well in hand, and unless catastrophic developments occurred there was no doubt of the ability of the industry to meet all demands. The end of the fighting found the refining industry working at top capacity on war commodities, but also in position to convert quickly into peacetime civilian production. 100-octane Aviation Gasoline Production of the vital 100-octane aviation gasoline, starting with approximately 44,000- bbl. daily capacity at our entry into the war, reached a top of 525,000 bbl. a day in the United States by the end of hostilities. With 75,- bbl. from other Allied sources, the grand total was 600,000 bbl., or 25,000,000 gal. each 24 hr. available to the armed forces had fighting continued. At times it was a close race between requirements and production, but never were any important military operations involving the use of high-octane aviation gasoline held up or delayed for lack of sufficient output of such material. The undivided effort of the entire refining industry in full cooperation with the Government made this record possible. Little diminution in output followed the German surrender on May 7. Plans called for a correspondingly greater activity for the Japanese war and possibly for well into 1946. But when the Japanese sued for peace on Aug. 10 most contracts were quickly canceled. Substantial stocks, reputed to be somewhere between 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 bbl., built up largely between V-E and V-J day pending organization of the larger Japanese war program envisaged after Germany gave up, were in the Government's hands in this country, in addition to working stocks in the war areas. Toluene and Lubricating Oil Requirements for toluene for T.N.T. increased rapidly as bombing speeded UP with increasing control of the air by the Allies in Europe and Asia. Production in excess of T.N.T. requirements which had been going into 1000-Octane aviation fuel blending during 1943 and 1944 was again drawn into explosive manufacture early in 1945. In anticipation of the war continuing into 1946, two new plants were ordered constructed, the decision being announced in April, plans calling for one of them to get into production about the end of 1945, the other in the first quarter of 1946. Both of these projects were later canceled as victory made it evident that the additional supplies would not be needed. Production was

Jan 1, 1946

By T. F. Petty

Oil and gas production in North Central Texas has been found in sands and limestones in the Cisco, Canyon, Strawn and Bend series of Pennsylvanian age and in lime of pre-Pennsylvanian age. Production ranges in depth below the surface from 150 to 4500 ft.; a few wells have been drilled to depths in excess of 5500 ft. and penetrated rocks of pre-Cambrian age. In Table 1, the average depth of the pools is shown. No mention, however, is made in this table of approximately 30,000 bbl. of oil produced in Callahan County from a pre-Pennsylvanian pay, presumably the Ellenberger, and an excess of 1,000,000 bbl. of oil produced from limestone, which has been identified as Silurian in the south part of Young County. This well is being produced at the present time. In Table 1 a great many pools of minor importance are listed, which are merely productive spots, and throughout the various producing counties there are numerous similar spots, which might be listed as pools. Their production, however, is listed in the county totals. In Table 2, the totals of the oil wells, gas wells, and dry holes drilled before Jan. 1,1935, include only wells on which records are available to the writer. In Brown, Callahan and Shackelford counties 2924 very shallow wells (150 to 600 ft. deep) have been drilled, on which the record is not available. Possibly there are other wells that were drilled before the district was adequately scouted. No classification as to the depths of this total of 30,644 wells is available at present. Initially, nearly all the oil wells of North Central Texas produced gas, and several areas producing dry gas have been partly developed. A number of casinghead gasoline plants strip the gasoline from the gas produced with the oil, and the manufacture of carbon black is an important industry in Stephens County. Dry and residue gas are marketed through systems serving the various towns of the district, San Angelo to the southwest and the cities of Forth Worth and Dallas to the east. Considerable gas is used in repressuring several pools, the most important of which are the Stover of Brown County and the Cook of Shackelford County. During the past year, 32 gas wells were completed, adding a

Jan 1, 1935

By Robert Schorr

A Discussion of the Paper by Robert Schorr, read at the Atlantic City meeting, February, 1904. (Washington Meeting, May, 1905.) E. T. DUMBLE, Houston, Texas (communication to the Secretary*) :-In addition to the list of publications mentioned by Mr. Schorr and those by Prof. Hofman, I call attention to the following references : Studi sulle Lignite, by Capacci. Turin (1890). (An excellent work.) Report of Brown Coal Industry in Germany. J. Cosmo Newberry. Department of Mines, Victoria (1892). Second Report of the Royal Commission. on Coal Supply. Vol. II. London (1904). Peat Fuel: Its Manufacture and Use. Report of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario, 1903. Mr. Schorr says : " Brown coal and peat are briquetted as a rule without binder," but this statement is entirely true only so far as raw peat is concerned, and it is but partly true of brown coal. With regard to raw peat, briquetting without bond is carried on successfully both in Europe and America, and the development of the industry in Canada is fully described in the Bureau of Mines report for 1903, mentioned above. While there is still room for improvement in the efficiency of some of the arrangements for drying the peat previous to briquetting, a very satisfactory fuel is made at a price which enables it to compete with coal. During the late strike in the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania, the manufacture of peat: briquettes received a considerable impetus, and possibly the attention directed to it on this account may result in a. considerable increase in the output. In Canada. the peat when it is first excavated from the ground

Mar 1, 1905

By Nicholas Kowall, K. L. Clark

Maximum furnace efficiency and close control of final steel composition demand that the steel melter be able to follow closely the variations in the carbon content of the bath. For many years, the fracture test has been used by melters for estimating carbon, because it requires only a very short time to pour a sample into a chill mold, cool it in water, break it with a sledge hammer, and observe the fracture. After long experience gained from the observation of such fractures, most melters are able to estimate the carbon content of steel with amazing accuracy, particularly in the lower carbon ranges. Notwithstanding the utility of the fracture test, there has been widespread interest in other methods for rapid carbon determination to supplement it and to ensure against possible errors in human judgment. Several methods, based upon measurement of magnetic properties as functions of carbon content, have been described in the literature1-6 and have been found to give reasonably reliable results in plant practice when scrap composition is known and controlled. A difficulty encountered in the use of analyzers of the magnetic type is that alloying elements do change the relationship between carbon content and magnetic properties and it becomes necessary to establish calibration curves for all the expected combinations of alloy residuals that are not oxidized in the bath. The work reported here is of an investigation of a method that is independent of alloying elements normally present in constructional steels, being based upon the relatively well-known fact that in plain carbon and low-alloy steels martensitic hardness is a function of carbon content alone. Work oF Other Investigators In I938, Burns, Moore and Archer published & curve? that showed that the hardness of martensite is a function of carbon from 0.10 to 0.50 per cent and is independent of grain size or alloy content, at least within the rallge found in construc-tional S.A.E. compositions. Some of the deeper hardening types investigated, however, contained carbon to a maximum of only o.2o per cent. Using this principle, Kern8 developed a method of rapid carbon determination for S.A.E 43xx steels, His procedure consisted of chill-casting a test bar that was large enough to give a a that could be prepared for Brinell indentations. The test piece was quenched immediately after solidi fication was complete and hardness readings were taken, so that the carbon content could he read from an experimentally determined curve giving the relationship between as-quenched hardness and carbon. Experimental Work Although Kern's work had been done with a relatively deep-hardening steel, it

Jan 1, 1944

By K. L. Clark, Nicholas Kowall

Maximum furnace efficiency and close control of final steel composition demand that the steel melter be able to follow closely the variations in the carbon content of the bath. For many years, the fracture test has been used by melters for estimating carbon, because it requires only a very short time to pour a sample into a chill mold, cool it in water, break it with a sledge hammer, and observe the fracture. After long experience gained from the observation of such fractures, most melters are able to estimate the carbon content of steel with amazing accuracy, particularly in the lower carbon ranges. Notwithstanding the utility of the fracture test, there has been widespread interest in other methods for rapid carbon determination to supplement it and to ensure against possible errors in human judgment. Several methods, based upon measurement of magnetic properties as functions of carbon content, have been described in the literature1-6 and have been found to give reasonably reliable results in plant practice when scrap composition is known and controlled. A difficulty encountered in the use of analyzers of the magnetic type is that alloying elements do change the relationship between carbon content and magnetic properties and it becomes necessary to establish calibration curves for all the expected combinations of alloy residuals that are not oxidized in the bath. The work reported here is of an investigation of a method that is independent of alloying elements normally present in constructional steels, being based upon the relatively well-known fact that in plain carbon and low-alloy steels martensitic hardness is a function of carbon content alone. Work oF Other Investigators In I938, Burns, Moore and Archer published & curve? that showed that the hardness of martensite is a function of carbon from 0.10 to 0.50 per cent and is independent of grain size or alloy content, at least within the rallge found in construc-tional S.A.E. compositions. Some of the deeper hardening types investigated, however, contained carbon to a maximum of only o.2o per cent. Using this principle, Kern8 developed a method of rapid carbon determination for S.A.E 43xx steels, His procedure consisted of chill-casting a test bar that was large enough to give a a that could be prepared for Brinell indentations. The test piece was quenched immediately after solidi fication was complete and hardness readings were taken, so that the carbon content could he read from an experimentally determined curve giving the relationship between as-quenched hardness and carbon. Experimental Work Although Kern's work had been done with a relatively deep-hardening steel, it

Jan 1, 1944

By M. C. Lavine, H. C. Gatos, R. S. Mroczkowski

The structure of GaAs-Ge heterojunctions prepared by a back-melting process was studied by X-rav diffraction, melallographic, and electron-micro-analyzer techniques. The boundary region between the GaAs and the germanium was found to consist of a four-layered band. A discontinuity between the two inner bands was brought about by solidification occurring simultaneously from the GaAs and the germanium side. The junction material OH either side of the central discotinuity was found to have grown as a single Crystal with the orientation of the parent substrate. It was found essential to determine the GaAs-Ge phase diagram. This was accomplished by a series of alloys containing 0 to 40 wt pet GaAs. Over this range the diagram is a simple eutectic with the eutectic point at 74 wt pet Ge and 845 C. The limiting- solubility of Coils in germanium was found to bc less than 5 wt pet. The Kossel divergent-beam X-ray technique was used to study orientation relationships across the boundary lager. A great deal of effort has been recently expended on the electrical properties of heterojunctions. Little attention, however, has been given to the metallurgical variables which may be of importance in the formation of the junctions. The present work was undertaken to investigate some of the more pertinent metallurgical aspects of interface-alloyed GaAs-Ge heterojunctions. Such parameters as solidification processes, composition gradients, orientation effects, and the accommodation of crystal structures have been the objects of study in this program. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Phase Diagram. The phase diagram of the GaAs-Ge pseudobinary system was determined by means of cooling curves. A Bridgeman furnace was employed with the center section maintained at 1200°C and the upper section at 800°C. Melts varying from 0 to 40 at. pct in GaAs content were used. Each charge was incapsulated under a two-thirds atmosphere of argon in a carbon-coated quartz tube. Five min in the furnace hot zone provided rapid melting and homogenization. The capsule was then removed to the cooler portion of the furnace. Cooling times were of the order of 3 min. The resulting homogeneous microstructure indicated that equilibrium conditions were obtained by this procedure. Formation of Heterojunctions. Rectangular parallelepiped single-crystal samples were cut with the large faces of either the (l00), (110), or (111) orientation. The remaining four surfaces were also cut to specific orientations to permit accurate relative orientation of the GaAs-Ge pairs. The

Jan 1, 1965

By Alec M. Crowell, C. H. Thigpen

Continuing the increase in production of crude oil and condensate started in 1937, the oil fields of South Arkansas reached a 13-year peak with 26,570,704 bbl. for the year 1942. The stability of the production branch of the industry in the area is demonstrated by Fig. I, which reflects the fact that although the number of producing wells in the state has declined from 3280 in 1931 to 2957 at the end of 1942, total production has continuously increased since the beginning of 1937. This is because all fields discovered since Jan. I, 1937, have observed spacing patterns up to one well to each 160 surface acres, the dual completion of wells where there is more than one producing horizon Eight new pools were brought into production in South Arkansas during 1942 (Fig. 2) They increased the state's crude oil and condensate reserve by 121,000,000 bbl., bringing the total recoverable reserve figure to 450,000,000 bbl. (Table 3) as of Jan. I, 1943. Abandonment of wells in the stripper areas of the state increased by 32 per cent over the preceding year, there having been 142 wells permanently abandoned in 1942. For economic reasons 279 wells were temporarily shut down as of Dec. 31, 1942. A price increase may start these wells to pumping again and also be the incentive toward the commencing of several secondary recovery projects in the fields discovered between 1922 and 1937. There were 149 wells brought into production in 1942 as against 119 for the

Jan 1, 1943

By C. H. Thigpen, Alec M. Crowell

Continuing the increase in production of crude oil and condensate started in 1937, the oil fields of South Arkansas reached a 13-year peak with 26,570,704 bbl. for the year 1942. The stability of the production branch of the industry in the area is demonstrated by Fig. I, which reflects the fact that although the number of producing wells in the state has declined from 3280 in 1931 to 2957 at the end of 1942, total production has continuously increased since the beginning of 1937. This is because all fields discovered since Jan. I, 1937, have observed spacing patterns up to one well to each 160 surface acres, the dual completion of wells where there is more than one producing horizon Eight new pools were brought into production in South Arkansas during 1942 (Fig. 2) They increased the state's crude oil and condensate reserve by 121,000,000 bbl., bringing the total recoverable reserve figure to 450,000,000 bbl. (Table 3) as of Jan. I, 1943. Abandonment of wells in the stripper areas of the state increased by 32 per cent over the preceding year, there having been 142 wells permanently abandoned in 1942. For economic reasons 279 wells were temporarily shut down as of Dec. 31, 1942. A price increase may start these wells to pumping again and also be the incentive toward the commencing of several secondary recovery projects in the fields discovered between 1922 and 1937. There were 149 wells brought into production in 1942 as against 119 for the

Jan 1, 1943

By J. Parke Channing

THE growth of and profession depends on meeting and solving new problems. It is a continuous process. 'A period free from new, or hitherto unknown, questions will be a period of arrested development in the profession it affects. The present generation has witnessed a' mechanical development that has been truly marvelous: Almost every day marks the advent of a new, or the improvement of an old; process, method or machine. Wonders are now commonplace. The impossible is regularly accomplished. Yet, with all our progress in every realm of science and with our development in the engineering field, advances which have made possible the marvelous growth in industry, we have not made commensurate gains in methods affecting the human factor. Without the cooperation of the worker, we shall always fall short of our goal in a mechanical or statistical sense. If we do not make the individual members of the human family strong, healthy, happy, and ambitious for better things for themselves and their children, we will have failed utterly, for that is the real reason for our existence as men and the purpose of our organized effort as an engineering group. Thomas A. Edison

Jan 1, 1921

By Marius R. Campbell

Does mine-sampling show the commercial value of a coal, and if so, how should it be done ? This question is often asked, but seldom answered. During the past summer, while engaged in securing coal for the Government coal-testing plant at St. Louis, I had an excellent opportunity to obtain information on t,his subject, and the results seem to furniih an answer to the question propounded above. Sampling for the U. 8. Geological Survey Coal- Testing Plant. In organizing the work of the testing-plant, it was decided that coal, in car-load lots only, would be accepted for testing; also that this coal should be loaded under the immediate supervision of a representative of the plant, so as to be certain that the car-load sample would be representative. As an additional check on the work, two mine-samples were to be collected from each mine visited, and these samples, as well as the sample from the car when it was received at the testing-plant, were to be carefully analyzed at the chemical laboratory established in connection with the plant and operated under the direction of Prof. N W. Lord of the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Mine-Samp1ing.—Mine-samples were collected with great care by me and my assistants, Messrs. J. Shober Burrows, John W. Groves and Frank W. De Wolf. The dominant idea in the regulations adopted for mine-sampling mas, that it should be done in such a manner that the sample would have the same composition as the commercial output of the mine.

Jan 1, 1906

By J. Gurland

THE microstructure of sintered carbides consists of particles of metal carbides, such as WC and TiC, embedded in a metallic binder which is usually a cobalt—or nickel-rich solid solution. One of the important factors influencing the strength of the alloys is the degree of dispersion of the carbide particles in the binder matrix. While it is generally accepted

Jan 1, 1960

By A. D. Rovig, T. J. Fisher

By converting its autogenous mills to steel ball mills at the C. E. Weed concentrator in Butte, Mont., The Anaconda Co. has achieved substantial increases in through- put tonnage, plus better recoveries as a result of the finer feed size to subsequent flotation operations. If steel grinding is so superior to autogenous grinding, why wasn't it chosen in the first place? Briefly, here's why:

Jan 10, 1975

By C. Zener, H. Nielsen, D. Van Winkle

THE internal friction of metals has been studied frequently at elevated temperatures.1-4 In most cases it rises rapidly with increasing temperature. The notable exceptions are ferromagnetic materials, and lead.2 This paper describes an investigation of the general features of the high-temperature internal friction of 70-30 alpha brass. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The internal friction of a metal is a measure of the rate at which it dissipates energy of vibration. The measure adopted here, I/Q, is (I/2p) times the specific damping capacity, a measure commonly used by engineers. In the measurements of this investigation, the stress level was kept so low that the observations were independent of the stress. The general method of making such measurements, and of observing the temperature of the specimen during a measurement, has been described elsewhere.5,6 The driver and detector coils were wound with wire insulated with glass thread, in order to withstand the high temperatures used. In previous work electrical eddy currents in the specimen served as the coupling between the mechanical vibration of the specimen and the electrical circuits of the driver and detector. The high values of the internal friction in the present investigation rendered this coupling insufficient. In order to increase this coupling, pole pieces cut from ordinary telephone diaphragms were attached to the specimen. A mixture of French chalk and water glass proved a satisfactory cement. All measurements were made at the fundamental frequency for transverse vibration, which lay between 600 and 900 cycles per second. SPECIMENS The measurements described herein were made upon a single cylindrical rod of brass, kindly furnished by Dr. Cyril Stanley Smith, of the American Brass Co. This rod was the specimen E of the set of alphabrass rods described in an earlier paper.6 Successively larger grain sizes were obtained by annealing at successively higher temperatures. A slice was cut off one end after each set of measurements. Grain counts were made on each slice by W. E. Lindlief, of the American Brass Co. Nine fields were viewed on each piece, located as shown in Fig. I. Results are given in Table I. The grain size is defined in the usual way; namely, Grain size = I/n ½ where n is the mean number of grains per square millimeter. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS This paper is concerned exclusively with the part of the internal friction that becomes dominant at high temperatures. It is thus desirable to separate this part of the internal friction from the part that is

Jan 1, 1942

Jan 1, 1900

By B. R. Palmer, M. C. Fuerstenau

Oxide and silicates respond to flotation with a large number of anionic collectors. These include carboxylates (fatty acids), sulfonates, alkyl sulfates, and certain chelating agents. In contrast to sulfide mineral flotation, relatively long-chained collectors (generally longer than 10 carbons) are required to effect flotation of this group of minerals. The structural formulas of these various anionic collectors are presented in Table 1. Formulas and solubilities of various fatty acids are presented in Table 2. These solubilities are those of the dissolved and undissociated species of the acid, e.g. oleic acid, HOl(aq). Of the compounds listed, oleic acid and abietic acid, which IS a major constituent of talloel, are used most commonly in commercial applications. The usage of these two collectors is related to cost and effectiveness. In addition to their high molecular weights, oleic acid contains a double bond in its hydrocarbon chain, while abietic acid is comprised of aromatic rings containing double bonds. The presence of double bonds increases solubility significantly over that of saturated homologues. Stability of metal-collectors assumes a most significant role in these systems, and the solubility products of various metal carboxylates and sulfonates are listed in Tables 3, 4 and 5. In addition to these properties, strength of the acids of these various anionic collectors is also important. The carboxylic and hydroxamic acids are weak acids whereas sulfonic and alkyl sulfuric acids are strong acids. All of the carboxylic acids fall in the range of pK = 4.7 ± 0.5 ([2]); the pK of hydroxamic acid is around 9 ([3]); and the pK of sulfonic acid is about 1.5 ([4]).

Jan 1, 1976

L. D. Ricketts, New York, N. Y.-In recent years the metallurgical field of the copper industry has expanded greatly, the copper ores have become lean and diverse in character, and we are obliged to treat such ores on a very large scale. On the commercial side, the operating and consulting staffs of ,the great mining companies have been enlarged and organized, and no great capital expenditure is decided upon until it has been investigated and recommended by a highly organized force of specialists as a committee. I believe that in the scientific field and in the most valuable proceedings of our various societies the old idea of one-man point of view and one-man treatment of principle and detail together has been. splendidly developed and should continue, but for the advancement of our art we should deliberately discuss subjects among ourselves in order to do away with the idiosyncrasies of the individual and to gain a composite view representing the best thought of many men. In the development of new ideas leading to the introduction of new methods, the societies could enlarge their present great field of usefulness if such discussion be had, and in my opinion further great good could be done if a number of men of different qualifications and experience would join in preparing a joint book, each dealing with his particular problem, but consulting the other men. In this way individualism would be preserved and various processes would be described, and if properly reviewed the paper would be palpably capable of analysis, and the student would have at his command the associated efforts of a group of qualified engineers.

Jan 4, 1915

By W. L. Saunders

(Wilkes-Barre Meeting, June, 1911.) I. INTRODUCTION. IT is now generally admitted by experts that at least so far as rapid progress is concerned the Alpine system of tunnel-driving is superior to any other. This is perhaps natural in view of the record of experience in driving tunnels through the Alps. These great mountain-chains cannot be treated in the ordinary way by shaft-sinking and driving headings, thus multiplying the points of attack. The work must be done from the ends only, hence speed in driving is of the utmost importance; and, as necessity is the mother of invention, the concentration of effort to make progress has resulted in an organization and in mechanical appliances that have produced results so much in excess of the usual practice, even in America, that a discussion of the subject in detail should be of much value to the engineer and contractor. The first Alpine tunnel was the Mont Cenis, length 7.5 miles, driven with a progress that averaged about 7.75 ft. per day. Next came the Saint Gothard, 9.5 miles long, 18 ft. per day; Arlberg, 6.5 miles long, 27.25 ft. per day; Simplon, 12.25 miles long, 36 ft. per day. The figures represent progress when driving from two headings, so that by dividing them in two we get the daily single-heading progress. The latest of the Alpine tunnels is the Loetschberg, now being driven. In this work the world's record has been beaten by a single day's record in one heading of 36 ft. and by an average daily record in. one heading of 29.5 feet. The Alpine range forms a natural barrier between a large section of northern and southern Europe. This range extends from the southeast of France to the frontier of Hungary, between Italy and the plains of southern Germany. The contour

Jul 1, 1911

By WILLIAM SLOAN

B RITISH COLUMBIA in its mining activities is going ahead by leaps and bounds both in development and production. Mineral production for 1925 was $61,492,242 in value as compared to $48,704,- 604 in 1924, or an increase of about 26.2 per cent. This is a new record. It is the first time in the history of mining in British Columbia that we have gone over the fifty million mark. But we have got in the habit of making new records. The year 1924, with its mineral production of almost forty-nine million was a new record. And I am confident that when the mining history of 1926 is written it will be found that we have established yet another new record and that we can report another 25 per cent increase over 1925. What is the explanation? It is not only that the world is settling down, and settling up, after the war. It is not only that in the rebuilding, the refashioning in which all nations are busily engaged, the metals that come from our mines are needed. More than anything else, at least as far as we are concerned, it is because British Columbia has the resources and the fact that the province has been fortunate in recent years in finding men with the enterprise and the vision required to push ahead the labor of their development. From the ranks of our own people in Canada we have prospectors who have faith, energy and requisite knowledge. They are combing our hills season after season and they are of the type of manhood that does not know the meaning of the word quit. More and more these men are learning the importance of the guidance furnished by geological reports, and to an ever increasing extent such reports, thanks to the valuable work of the Canadian Geological Survey, covering areas little known to man, are made available to them-but it is recognized that in the opening up of our Province, containing within itself 372,000 square miles, it is essential that we should have the cooperation of our cousins on this side of the line as well as of our fellow citizens of the Dominion and of the Mother Country.

Jan 1, 1926