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By E. E. Anderson, R. L. Newacheck, J. Kohl

Radioactive materials were used underground before the advent of the nuclear reactor. Radium containing ores have been mixed with cements and other materials for later location in oil wells by gamma ray logging since 1940.1 Perforating bullets have been marked with radium salts,, and radioactive materials have been added to drilling muds to find the cause of "lost circulation."' More recently colloidal suspensions of radioactive cobalt-60 and silver-1103 and solutions of 1-1314 have been used in waterflooding operatiorns to determine injection profiles, flow paths and water velocities. In this paper a recent and interesting underground tracer application is discussed. Development work and field engineering were carried out under the direction of Tracerlab, lnc., with assistance from personnel of the client. A gaseous tracer, argon-41, was used in an attempt to determine the cause of leakage from an underground gas storage reservoir. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM This gaseous tracer application was carried out for the Natural Gas Storage Co. of Illinois. This company has developed an underground gas storage field 1,750 ft below the surface of the earth near the village of Herscher, Ill., about 60 miles south of Chicago. The total volume of gas stored in the field was estimated to be about 13 billion cu ft in the spring of 1954. The field has a maximum estimated storage capacity of 90 billion cu ft. The gas is contained in the Galesville sandstone, previously a water bearing formation of about 25 per cent porosity. The water as it is pushed out by the gas forms a barrier for the gas around the edge of the reservoir. Over the top and beneath the bottom of the reservoir are located several layers of impervious rock, which barring cracks or unplugged and unknown wells should act as seals. Twenty-one injection and withdrawal wells were drilled into the Herscher reservoir and gas injection was begun during the summer of 1953. After a few weeks of gas injection, evidence of gas leakage was detected at the surface; water wells began bubbling and losing prime, and dry spots in the fields indicated gas leakage from uncharted oil wells. In every case, the leakage could not be traced back any further than the water bearing formations a few hundred feet below the surface. An extensive search was made to locate uncharted oil wells which were believed to be possible channels for the gas from the storage formation to the water containing formation. Long-time residents in the area assisted in the location of several abandoned oil wells. The wells when located were cleaned out and either used as vent wells to relieve the gas pressure in the water formations, or were plugged with cement. None of the wells even approached depths which would endanger the soundness of the storage reservoir. All of the injection wells were tested for leaks in the casings by conducting neutron surveys and by other techniques. To detect any leakage up through the cement-filled annulus surrounding the casing, a section of the casing wall in one well was milled out. Then, plugs were installed above and below the cut-out section and pressure applied to the annulus, which proved conclusively that the cement was sound in that well. The well was then plugged with cement and abandoned. In another well, ammonia was injected into the well and a temperature log was made. It was hoped that a leak would be re-

Jan 1, 1956

By George H. Ashley

Mining, including quarrying, dates back almost to the dawn of history, beginning almost with the beginning of what we call civilization. State surveys date back about 100 years. Evidently mining flourished for thousands of years before state surveys were thought of. Why should it not continue to flourish without state surveys? First, it may be noted that as mining and civilization were contemporaneous, so state surveys and the science of geology were almost contemporaneous. As recently as 30 years ago the United States mineral laws were interpreted to mean that coal lands in the public domain were only those lands on which workable coal outcropped. The half billion acres of public land underlain by .coal but on which it did not outcrop were treated as homestead lands and open to settlement. Just what did the science of geology do to or for the mining industry? Until geology arose rocks or minerals or ores were where they were found. Their finding might be accidental, or might be the result of deliberate search or prospecting. In open, rocky country, with little or no vegetation, as in parts of the West, prospecting served very well, though at an enormous expenditure of human time and effort, if not money. The old saying that every dollar's worth of gold taken from the earth has cost two dollars may largely be charged to the time value of the usual method of prospecting. Geology changed all that. The science is still young and it still labors under handicaps of immaturity and early errors. Geology, however, has gradually been discovering the relations and conditions under which the several mineral deposits occur. Its elaborate studies of exhausted or nearly exhausted mineral deposits has done for it what human autopsy has done for medicine and surgery. Perhaps in no field is this plainer than in the oil and gas industry. Note might also be made of several important coal fields in England and on the Continent, in which the coal is everywhere deeply buried. Passing over the long period of growth during the past 100 years, geology today is prepared to offer the mining industry: first, a knowledge of the geologic conditions under which most minerals occur and to explore

Jan 1, 1935

By George H. Ashley

Mining, including quarrying, dates back almost to the dawn of history, beginning almost with the beginning of what we call civilization. State surveys date back about 100 years. Evidently mining flourished for thousands of years before state surveys were thought of. Why should it not continue to flourish without state surveys? First, it may be noted that as mining and civilization were contemporaneous, so state surveys and the science of geology were almost contemporaneous. As recently as 30 years ago the United States mineral laws were interpreted to mean that coal lands in the public domain were only those lands on which workable coal outcropped. The half billion acres of public land underlain by .coal but on which it did not outcrop were treated as homestead lands and open to settlement. Just what did the science of geology do to or for the mining industry? Until geology arose rocks or minerals or ores were where they were found. Their finding might be accidental, or might be the result of deliberate search or prospecting. In open, rocky country, with little or no vegetation, as in parts of the West, prospecting served very well, though at an enormous expenditure of human time and effort, if not money. The old saying that every dollar's worth of gold taken from the earth has cost two dollars may largely be charged to the time value of the usual method of prospecting. Geology changed all that. The science is still young and it still labors under handicaps of immaturity and early errors. Geology, however, has gradually been discovering the relations and conditions under which the several mineral deposits occur. Its elaborate studies of exhausted or nearly exhausted mineral deposits has done for it what human autopsy has done for medicine and surgery. Perhaps in no field is this plainer than in the oil and gas industry. Note might also be made of several important coal fields in England and on the Continent, in which the coal is everywhere deeply buried. Passing over the long period of growth during the past 100 years, geology today is prepared to offer the mining industry: first, a knowledge of the geologic conditions under which most minerals occur and to explore

Jan 1, 1935

HAVING previously told you about lodestone, azure, emery, and manganese, things that perhaps belong more properly to the stones than to the metals, the desire has come to me to describe rock crystal as well and, with this, some of the better-known gems, although they are things that are not classified with metals, as far as I know, or even with the serniminerals. In truth, they are neither one nor the other, but they are stones and have the nature of stones. But let them be what they may, in order to avoid straying from the subject we have begun, we shall say that they have mineral properties in their species, as for instance, in respect to their colors. It would seem an error to me if, while I am giving you information on so many other useful things, I did not give you this as well, if for no other reason than because it is a fine accomplishment for a gentleman to have some knowledge concerning gems. Thus since I have proposed to do this, beginning to speak of crystal, I tell you that it is a lustrous, transparent, and limpid stone, composed by Nature with a predominance of wateriness. Thus, contrary to the order of natural things, it has been believed by many that Nature has generated it of pure water by means of a powerful and continuous coldness that always exists in those mountains and places where it is found, for the waters and snows can never melt there because of the great cold. They have tried to prove this opinion of theirs by saying that crystal still retains the nature of frozen water, and that this is. shown not only in its appearance but also in the fact that, like ice, it floats without sinking to the bottom when it is put in water. They also say that it is customary to put it under the tongues of the thirsty on account of the, coldness and moistness which it gives, and that it quenches the dryness of their thirst. But even if all these things were true, as they are not, they do not upon consideration bring us to the conclusion that it is water, because the diamond and the beryl would do the same. Therefore it does not seem to me credible [391 that it is as they claim, for it is a stone generated as such by Nature. And then, if this were true in those places where it rains often and many snows are formed, and these should freeze and never melt but

Jan 1, 1942

By Chester N. Truax

Still another shadow was cast over coal's largest market-the electric utilities-when President Johnson signed into law the Federal Clean Air Act of 1967. Air pollution-sulfur reduction-was thus brought into sharper focus as one of the central problems of the coal industry. Industry executives testified in both Houses of Congress to enable the lawmakers to develop a workable and economic law. The new legislation calls for the Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare to establish air control regions. After the regions are outlined the Department will publish air quality criteria on pollutants. Anticipating this legislation, the coal and utility industries have for the last several years been involved in extensive research programs to develop solutions to the air pollution problem. Even though the coal industry has been under strong attack for its part in adding contaminants to the atmosphere, it is by no means the major contributor.

Jan 2, 1968

By W. O Hotchkiss

An essential mental equipment for planning exploration is the fullest possible knowledge of the way in which the orebodies occur in the region to be explored, also the realization that in no mining district is this knowledge complete, and that new facts of importance will be revealed to the explorer in every exploration if he is in the proper frame of mind to grasp them. The geology of the ore deposits of the Gogebic Range for a long time was thought to be relatively simple, but work in recent years, by several men, has proved that this is not the case. We now realize that we are far from knowing all the factors that have resulted in the localization of ore deposits. For example, we have long known that the intersections of the dikes and the foot wall were favorable places to look for ore, but only within the last few years have we learned that there are several horizons in the various members, well north of the foot wall, that are likely to carry ore. The influence of the numerous cross faults on orebodies is not known or appreciated beyond a general realization that they are important. Just how they may be favorable or unfavorable to the localization of ore is not known. Such elementary information as the positions of these faults is just beginning to appear on the mine maps. Such being the condition, one can hardly overestimate the importance to the various operators and fee owners of careful studies of conditions in their properties for the purpose of assuring themselves that they are not missing valuable ore—that they are doing all the exploration that their situation demands in order to secure maximum returns. Valuable ores have been missed in the past and will be missed in the future. Only with a complete knowledge of all the factors that have united to produce ore could anything else be expected. The purpose of this paper is to call attention to these facts briefly and to suggest a few of the principles that should guide effective exploration. The foremost principle is that the man who starts out with the idea that he knows all about the mine geology of the Gogebic Range is starting with a heavy handicap.

Jan 1, 1923

By W. O. Hotchkiss

An essential mental equipment for planning exploration is the fullest possible knowledge of the way in which the orebodies occur in the region to be explored, also the realization that in no mining district is this knowledge complete, and that new facts of importance will be revealed to the explorer in every exploration if he is in the proper frame of mind to grasp them. The geology of the ore deposits of the Gogebic Range for a long time was thought to be relatively simple, but work in recent years, by several men, has proved that this is not the case. We now realize that we are far from knowing all the factors that have resulted in the localization of ore deposits. For example, we have long known that the intersections of the dikes and the foot wall were favorable places to look for ore, but only within the last few years have we learned that there are several horizons in the various members, well north of the foot wall, that are likely to carry ore. The influence of the numerous cross faults on orebodies is not known or appreciated beyond a general realization that they are important. Just how they may be favorable or unfavorable to the localization of ore is not known. Such elementary information as the positions of these faults is just beginning to appear on the mine maps. Such being the condition, one can hardly overestimate the importance to the various operators and fee owners of careful studies of conditions in their properties for the purpose of assuring themselves that they are not missing valuable ore—that they are doing all the exploration that their situation demands in order to secure maximum returns. Valuable ores have been missed in the past and will be missed in the future. Only with a complete knowledge of all the factors that have united to produce ore could anything else be expected. The purpose of this paper is to call attention to these facts briefly and to suggest a few of the principles that should guide effective exploration. The foremost principle is that the man who starts out with the idea that he knows all about the mine geology of the Gogebic Range is starting with a heavy handicap.

Jan 1, 1923

By A. L. Field

This general subject has been so thoroughly discussed by Dr. Herty and his associates, especially with regard to the degree of oxidation of the metal at the time that the silicon pig or spiegel is added, that I am not going to spend much time on that today. I should like to propound a question, which is based on my own observations made some years ago while with a large alloy-steel company which had two open-hearth furnace plants. It is true that one of these plants was not engaged particularly in making alloy steels, but there were certain relations between slag and metal composition which appeared to me to be entirely different in the two plants. I have an explanation for it that is more or less incomplete, but possibly Dr. Herty or Mr. Reinartz or some of the others may be able to complete it. Suppose we take our three layers; the metal on the bottom, on top of that the slag, and on top of the slag, the gas. We cannot overlook the gaseous phase. Regardless of the effect of the iron oxide in the slag on the rate of carbon elimination—and that, of course, is rather important in alloy practice since it is not desirable to have the carbon dropping too rapidly at the time the deoxidizing is had in the furnace—it will probably be admitted that it depends on the iron oxide in the metal for a given carbon oxide. I have seen cases where with approximately identical metal and slag compositions one furnace would work twice as rapidly as another in removing carbon. Of course, there is some explanation of this in what others have already said, that the question of the exact lime and silica content of the slag determines the activity and viscosity of the slag; but I am convinced, without having reviewed the actual records since I was asked to make this talk, because they were not available at the time, that the slags in these two furnaces were not materially different. Putting it another way, one furnace would have

Jan 1, 1935

By A. L. Field

This general subject has been so thoroughly discussed by Dr. Herty and his associates, especially with regard to the degree of oxidation of the metal at the time that the silicon pig or spiegel is added, that I am not going to spend much time on that today. I should like to propound a question, which is based on my own observations made some years ago while with a large alloy-steel company which had two open-hearth furnace plants. It is true that one of these plants was not engaged particularly in making alloy steels, but there were certain relations between slag and metal composition which appeared to me to be entirely different in the two plants. I have an explanation for it that is more or less incomplete, but possibly Dr. Herty or Mr. Reinartz or some of the others may be able to complete it. Suppose we take our three layers; the metal on the bottom, on top of that the slag, and on top of the slag, the gas. We cannot overlook the gaseous phase. Regardless of the effect of the iron oxide in the slag on the rate of carbon elimination—and that, of course, is rather important in alloy practice since it is not desirable to have the carbon dropping too rapidly at the time the deoxidizing is had in the furnace—it will probably be admitted that it depends on the iron oxide in the metal for a given carbon oxide. I have seen cases where with approximately identical metal and slag compositions one furnace would work twice as rapidly as another in removing carbon. Of course, there is some explanation of this in what others have already said, that the question of the exact lime and silica content of the slag determines the activity and viscosity of the slag; but I am convinced, without having reviewed the actual records since I was asked to make this talk, because they were not available at the time, that the slags in these two furnaces were not materially different. Putting it another way, one furnace would have

Jan 1, 1935

Jan 1, 1887

Jan 1, 1908

By H. H. Wright

In many fields edge water is one of the most important factors governing the production of oil. Possibly this fact is not appreciated by many producers except in so far as it may bring about a loss in production from wells drilled on the flanks of structures. In the light of artificial flooding as practiced in New York and Pennsylvania, and of the beneficial effect of natural water-flooding on many wells and leases in the Mid-Continent and elsewhere, it seems reasonable to suppose that very few phases of the petroleum industry hold greater promise for future benefit than the study and control of the natural water drive. Rate of Water Encroachment The rate of movement of water in artificially flooded areas has been referred to as so many feet per unit of time, usually from an injection well toward surrounding producing wells. This definition is vague when used in reference to the movement of natural edge water, inasmuch as such factors as sand thickness, steepness of dip and horizontal extent arc not considered. In the ultimate analysis, only the vertical component of movement affects the production of oil in the natural drive, and in order to define the rate of water encroachment more exactly, such a term as acre-fect per unit time might be used. Thus, where one well is located to each 10 acres a vertical movement of 5 ft. in the water level in a year would be defined as an encroachment of 50 acre-feet per year, and where one well is located to each 20 acres, as 100 acre-feet per year. Such a definition as this is entirely arbitrary, but it takes into consideration to a certain extent the influence of well spacing, and consequent sand drainage, on the rate of water movement. The rate of movement is considered to be an important function of water encroachment, for it is believed that the efficiency of recovery by natural water flood depends a good deal upon the rate of movement. In general, rapid encroachment is thought to effect a poor recovery because of the differential in favor of the movement of water through a sand body and the consequent tendency to trap oil in the sand. Slow movement, on the contrary, is thought to bring about a partial displace-

Jan 1, 1931

Jan 1, 1947

By R. N. Singh, A. S. Atkins

One of the most difficult problems associated with modern mechanised longwall mining is the lack of system flexibility to deal with local changes in geology, seam thickness and the face design parameters. As a consequence of system rigidity and the quest for increasing the coal face performance, the percentage extraction in the U.K. is currently below 52%. The paper outlines the current guidelines used in face design which permit coal to be left in situ for various purposes and discusses the strata control implications in extracting subsequent panels in the same and adjacent coal seams. The paper examines the application of strata mechanics to the design of longwall layouts for maximizing .the percentage of coal extraction. Remedial measures include optimizing pillar dimensions, reduction in roof coal left for support purposes by improving the use of available powered support technology and application of thick seam mining methods including sub-level caving and techniques of extracting coal from odd shaped pillars. Case studies are described where coal extraction has been maximized by adopting a new single heading retreat mining system; a shallow seam partial extraction system utilizing, existing heading machines and minimisin8 coal sterilization in pillars by replacing longwall access roadways by goaf scour.

Jan 1, 1984

Jan 1, 1947

Gentlemen.-The Institute was founded 54 years ago "with the object of promoting the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals and the welfare of those employed in these industries by means of meetings for social intercourse and the reading and discussion of professional papers, and to circulate by means of publications among its members and associates the information thus obtained," At least once a year it is well to take stock of our assets, review our performance and determine how well we are now carrying out the purposes of our Founders. There can be no question as to the work the Institute has done and is doing in promoting the arts and sciences in the fields of mining and metallurgy. One needs only to contrast the methods, the labor and the costs of a half century ago with those now to visualize how far we have gone in the development of accurate technology and sound economics in mineral and metal production. The great mines, mills and smelters of the present, handling individually thousands of tons per day, would' have been impossible except for the accumulation of knowledge, the development of theory, and the improvement in practice that has characterized the period since the foundation of the Institute. The United States has prospered in the last half century greatly, and this has been due not merely to the possession of great natural resources, but to these resources being reduced to possession and put to work. The absence of customs barriers and the freedom of trade across the whole width of this great continent has been an important factor in the growth of our wealth. Unrestricted interchange of goods has permitted each citizen to draw on the resources of the whole country. However, these are but subsidiary causes of prosperity. The free interchange of scientific and technical data, by making the whole body of facts and theory available to each worker, has made this quick and unrivaled development possible. In promoting this free trade in knowledge the Institute may claim a large place without fear of denial. The .72 volumes of TRANSACTIONS, the special volumes, the bulletins and the other publications that have been issued, include a store of knowledge of the arts and sciences related to the production and use of metals and minerals not duplicated elsewhere. The large list of foreign members-1746 in number-few of whom ever have opportunity to attend meetings and all of whom derive their main benefits from membership through the pub-

Jan 1, 1928

By O. N. Cole, R. E. Davis, T. D. Brotherton

Pvfoperties of rubidium and cesium are compared with those of other alkali metals. Methods for the preparation of rubidium and cesium metal are reviewed briefly, ad hazards and safety precautions required in handling rubidium and cesium metal are described. SimPle methods for handling laboratory quantities of elemental rubidium ad cesium under oil and under argon are illustrated. CESIUM and rubidium were both discovered by Bunsen and Kirchoff in the years 1860 and 1861. Cesium was discovered while Bunsen and Kirchoff were making a spectrographic study of spring water from Durkheim, Germany. It was the first element discovered by this technique. The element was given the Latin name "caesius" for sky blue because of the color it imparted to flames. Elemental cesium was first prepared by Setterberg in 1881 through electrolysis of a molten mixture of cesium and barium cyanides.' In 1861, Bunsen and Mirchoff discovered rubidium while making a spectrographic study of the alkali content of lepidolite ore from Saxony. Two prominent dark red lines appeared in the spectrum and so the element was named "rubidius" or dark red. In 1861 Bunsen and Kirchoff first prepared elemental rubidium through the electrolysis of molten rubidium chl~ride.~ The alkali metals are very similar in their chemical and physical properties. They are the most active metals, and all exhibit a single oxidation state of one. They are so reactive that they are never found in nature in the elemental state. The reactivity of he metals increases with atomic number. Rubidiurn and cesium ignite spontaneously in air and react explosively with water. This extreme reactivity makes necessary special equipment and techniques for the safe preparation and use of the metals. The cation: of Group IA can be separated from the metallic cations of other groups with relative ease, but the separation of the individual alkali cations is much more difficult because of their close chemical similarity. This close chemical and physical similarity of alkali metals can be inferred from the atomic radii, oxidation numbers, and ioni-zation potentials shown in Table I. A difficult but the most practical physical method of separating the elemental alkali metals from one another is by distillation. Only lithium has a boiling point sufficiently far-removed from the boiling points of the other alkali metals to make this method of separation feasible without elaborate and expensive equipment. This method is not used, however, for lithium because it possesses sufficient chemical dissimilarity from the other alkalies for it to be separated relatively easily as lithium hydroxide monohydrate or as lithium carbonate. Francium, the last member of the group, has no known stable isotopes. The naturally occurring

Jan 1, 1962

By J. E. Berg

THE geology of the Coeur d'Alene mining district is so familiar to every one interested in mining that I will only note as an introduction that the main producers are mines whose orebodies lie in the Revett or Burke quartzites ; that the known orebodies in the eastern part of the district all lie north of the Osburn fault; that the Prichard formation is quite generally looked upon as being unfavorable for lead deposits ; that the monzonite intrusive mass extending north from Gem to Sunset Peak, and over into Cedar Creek divide, is considered to have been the prime agent in the crea-tion of our orebodies, and that diabase dikes are a quite common feature at most of the properties with which I am familiar. Some of the exceptions to these statements may be mentioned. The Interstate-Callahan mine is considered the exception disproving the alleged relation between large ore-deposits and the Prichard formation, but this property was primarily a zinc producer, with lead secondary, though of sufficient tonnage to be a valuable product. A second interesting occurrence in the Prichard worth calling to your attention is the Jack Waite property, on Tributary Creek, north of Murray. This vein lies at a low horizon in the Prichard forma-tion, and the ore differs essentially from others in the same horizon elsewhere in that it is a clean, medium to coarsely crystalline, lead ore carrying very little zinc, about one ounce silver to ten units lead, and is accom-panied by a clean quartz gangue or vein filling. I believe that quartz was the primary mineral in the fissure, and that the lead ore was deposited in the vein as a replacement of the quartz.

Jan 7, 1927

DR. E. E. SOUTHARD,* Boston, Mass.-As Director of a Psychopathic Hospital, I am a sort of "voice in the wilderness" speaking to mining engineers. I suppose that I am here because Major Gilbreth had prevailed upon me to speak on a kindred topic before the mechanical engineers at the annual meeting of their Institute. You might wonder why a psychopathic hospital, a state institution for the first care of mental cases and especially for incipient, acute and curable cases, should have any part or lot in the industrial problem. We have obvious contacts in our institution with the retarded and exceptional children of the schools, with the defective and non-defective

Jan 4, 1918

By AIME AIME

MOST of us are far .from home, and yet our Japanese hosts- have made us feel very much at home. Here in the Orient we engineers are .learning a new meaning for the word "orientation"- hereafter that engineering term will be a synonym for gracious hospitality, and "to orient" will mean to turn a whole country over to the World Engineering Congress. Mere geographic distance is no longer able to separate nations, for the conquest of distance is one of the triumphs of 'modern engineering. We of the Americas are fortunate in the position of our continents: with their shores lapped by the waves of two oceans, we face' two great civilizations, the' Occidental and the Oriental, and thus we can share the intellectual resources of these two older cultures.

Jan 1, 1929