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By Charles Berkey

CONTENTS PAGE C. P. Berkey-Responsibilites of the Geologist in Engineering Projects (with discussion) 4 Kirk Bryan-Problems Involved in the Geologic Examination of Sites for Dams 10 0. E. Meinzer-Relation of Ground-water Conditions to Leakage of Reservoirs (with discussion) 19 Charles Terzaghi-Effect of Miner Geologic Details on the Safety of Dams (with discussion) 31 G. H. Matthes-More and Better Geologic Data for Use in Hydraulic Projects (with discussion) 47 L. W. Fisher and R. D. Ohrenschall-Geologic Examination of Dam Sites in the Tennessee and Cumberland River Basins 60 C. K. Wentworth-The Geology of Dam Sites (with discussion) 78 L. C. Glenn-The Geology of Dams and Reservoirs 97 H. T. Stearns-Success and Failure of Reservoirs in Basalt (abstract) 111

Jan 1, 1929

By AIME AIME

IN ACCORDANCE with the provisions of the Rules of Procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, the American Society for Testing, Mate-. on Feb. 15, 1921, submitted for approval by the A. E. S. Committee certain Standard Specifications for Copper, all of which were adopted or in process prior to Jan. 1, 1920, and sent with the standards the following histories of development and statements of use. FOR SOFT OR ANNEALED COPPER WIRE (B3-15) These specifications were originaly adopted by. the American Society for Testing Materials in 1912. They were prepared by a committee of the Society designated as Committee B-1 on Copper Wire. The committee consisted of eleven members; representatives of five manufacturers of -copper wire, of four manufacturers of electrical apparatus, and of two firms of consulting and contracting engineers. The members of the committee were designated by the officials of the companies to act as their representatives in the committee.

Jan 1, 1921

By W. C. Elmore

THE magnetic powder method, long used for roughly mapping mag-netic fields, has recently been refined 1,2 for investigating the microscopic variations in the surface magnetization of ferromagnetic crystals. Bitter2 first discovered regular powder patterns connected with the crystal structure of such specimens. Several other investigators3 have used Bitter's original technique, with slight modifications, to study the varia-tion of the patterns with variations in the magnetizing field applied parallel to the surface, and their dependence upon the state of strain, of polish and of crystal cut. All of the explanations of these patterns on metallic ferromagnetics have been couched in general terms. In a preliminary report we have described an improvement in the powder technique which led us to the discovery of a new effect throwing con-siderable light on the magnetic secondary structure of alpha iron4 and of nickel5 single crystals. We now report additional evidence confirming the existence and stability of a magnetic block secondary structure.

Jan 1, 1936

By Kirtley F. Mather

FROM almost every point of view, petroleum was "strategic mineral number one" during the World War that ended in 1945. Even the spectacular advent of the atomic bomb in the final days of the conflict did not displace it from its position of prime importance, although within a few years uranium will almost certainly be the "number one" material in the minds of military strategists, if it is not even now in that position. But both as fuel and as raw material for chemical industries, petroleum will hold the center of the stage for many years to come. Hardly any other substance illustrates so fully the manner in which science and technology may be combined to achieve the utmost success in contributing to human efficiency and comfort. Fundamental to any understanding of the problems implied by my topic

Jan 1, 1948

By E. C. Dominguez

INTRODUCTION The first commercial plant in the world to successfully produce pellets from manganese ore fines is the ICOMI pelletizing facility in northern Brazil. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the manganese pelletizing process that was developed through a cooperative R & D program by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation and ICOMI, i.e., Industria e Commercio de Minerios, S. A. The process combines heavy- media and gravity separation, reduction roasting, magnetic separation, and pelletizing on a straight-grate indurating machine. It produces high-grade manganese pellets from reviously unsalable low-grade ore fines at a rate of 20,000 tonnes (1) per month. The physical properties of the manganese pellets are comparable to those of iron ore pellets. The pelletizing plant, built at a cost of about 18 million dollars, is part of an ICOMI complex that includes manganese ore mining, an ore-washing plant, and railroad and port facilities, as well as two town sites. These two towns, one at the mine and the other at the port, each with complete community services, were built by ICOMI to serve the needs of over 1500 employees that operate the industrial complex. To give an idea of the magnitude of the investment represented by this complex, the cost up to 1957 to develop the mine and supporting services and social infrastructure was over 100 million dollars. It should be borne in mind that the above capital cost figures are in dollars of the years during which the respective projects were initiated and completed.

Jan 1, 1977

By Dan E. Lewis, William E. Saegart

Similarities of certain geologic and mineralogic parameters are recognized among the various Philippine porphyry copper deposits. Lowell and Guilbert3 described a model of the typical porphyry copper deposit as the result of comparing numerous Western Hemisphere occurrences. Many of the characteristics of the Philippine porphyry copper deposits differ from the model developed by Lowell and Guilbert. A model of the typical porphyry copper deposit is presented and the characteristics of the Philippine model are compared with those of the Western Hemisphere model. Estimated Philippine copper production in 1975 was 242 446 mt. The total in 1948 was 2091 mt. This represents a 116-fold increase in copper production during the 28-yr period. The Philippines now rank seventh in total world production of copper.

Jan 1, 1978

By Cyril Smith

SOMEWHAT over ten years ago the author described studies1,2 on the constitution of the copper-silicon system. The copper-rich portion of this diagram is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental points freely dotted about the diagram seemed to justify an otherwise unconvincing diagram and for several years the curious reverse bend in the alpha-phase bound-ary was accepted as substantially correct, even by later investigators3,4 of the system who introduced changes in the high-silicon phases. The binary diagram has been used as a base for several ternary systems" without any suggested changes. Voce10 suspected the existence of another phase from his study of the cast alloys in the copper-manganese¬silicon system, but evidently hesitated to extrapolate this to the binary diagram, particularly in view of the too ingenious explanation that was advanced" to account for the pools of constituent clearly visible in castings; namely, that they were secondary alpha of twinned orientation deposited from beta. Von Schwarz,12 in 1932, called attention to the fact that this micro-constituent in copper-silicon alloy castings was anisotropic under polar-ized light and asserted that a new phase, not cubic, should be placed in the diagram adjacent to alpha. Sautner,13 on the basis of investigations with the polarizing microscope and with X-rays, introduced this phase into the diagram at about 6 per cent Si. The relevant part of his dia-gram is shown in Fig. 2. Sautner called the new phase beta, renaming the old beta phase zeta. To avoid confusion, in redrawing Fig. 2 the phases have been renamed in accordance with the terminology adopted in the present paper, in which the new phase is called kappa and the other phases retain the designation given them by Arrhenius and Westgren.4

Jan 1, 1939

By AIME AIME

THE Institute of Metals held a well rounded out symposium on the working of metals, distributed over two sessions. At the first session* four papers were presented, two dealing with the, cold working of metals and alloys and two with the hot working of non-ferrous alloys. The first paper by E. V. Crane, dealt with "Metal Working in Power Presses." Mr. Crane pointed out the empirical nature of engineering data available for use in calculating the probable stresses developed and power requirements, for the shearing, drawing, binding and other forming operations. He described the various operations, methods of determining stresses developed and presented data obtained. In the discussion C. F. Hammond took exception to Mr. Crane's objections to the rather too frequent. annealing operations in drawing of cartridge cases, pointing out that the material was-manufactured to meet specified structure and physical requirements, which could only be met by carefully controlled sequences of working and intermediate annealing operations.

Jan 1, 1931

By Lester A. Blackner

The Ray Consolidated Copper Co.'s mining property is located on Mineral Creek, 6 miles north of Kelvin, at Ray, Pinal County, Ariz. (Fig. 1). The mining claims now owned by the company consist of 126 lode claims, comprising 2,144.9 acres, containing at the beginning of operations 82,904,368 tons of 2.19 per cent. copper ore. General Characteristics of the Orebody The main orebody is a disseminated deposit in schist and porphyry formed by secondary enrichment. Its existence was proved by churn drilling, and it is at present one of the largest proved copper deposits in the world. The orebody itself covers 205 acres with an average thickness of 121 ft., and occupies a definite belt which has a northwest direction. Its length is approximately 5,000 ft. The width varies, being about 2,000 ft. at the west end and 2,500 ft. at the east, narrowing down irregularly from both ends to a few feet in the center. The thickness of the body varies greatly along the line of lode, ranging from a few feet up to 470 ft. thick. The ore horizon is not constant, but varies, following in a broad sense the topography. The body in general dips slightly to the northeast, and is broken up by numerous small faults and fractures. The ore-bearing formations, consisting of mineralized schist and mineralized granite porphyry, stand fairly well and offer no difficulty in mining operations. The bulk of the ore is chalcocite disseminated in schist. In places cupriferous pyrite is closely associated with the chalcocite. The mineralized gr'anite-porphyry forhations are contiguous to the ore-bearing schist. • Overlying the orebody is an oxidized zone of leached iron-stained schist, averaging 252 ft. in thickness, termed "capping." The Line of

Jan 1, 1916

By Paul M. Tyler

HISTORICAL concepts of the economics of the glass-sand industry are changing rapidly. The greatly expanded demand for glass containers combined with higher freight rates on raw materials and manufactured products have induced a migration of glass factories toward densely populated centers and the creation of new standards of place value for sub- standard sand deposits. This migration has been facilitated by the construction of pipelines to bring cheaper natural gas and liquid fuel to large cities and may be further speeded by the adoption of modern mineral dressing methods to permit economical utilization of local raw materials. Our national resources of naturally high-grade 1 silica sand are abundant, but most of the best de- posits are situated so far from large centers of population that it now costs $3.00 to $5.00 a ton to carry the sand from the mine to the optimum site for a 1 factory making beverage bottles, scientific and electrical glassware, and miscellaneous blown and pressed ware for local markets. It follows that on the basis of freight savings alone it may be economical to use material from inferior deposits closer to the factory even though the f.o.b. cost of mining and treatment may be much high

Jan 1, 1950

By W. H. Triplett

Silver-lead-zinc replacement deposits occur in limestones of the anticlinal Caja range at Providencia, near Avalos, Zacatecas, Mexico. The description deals with intrusives, outcrops, preferred horizons, changes from bedding to fracture, control in depth, and variations in abundance and ratios of minerals throughout a vertical range of 500 m. THE purpose of this paper is to record a few field observations and accumulated office data concerning outcrops, relation of ore occurrences to intrusive and host rock, and mineral zoning. Reasons for some of the phenomena are not clear to the author so the facts are given with the hope that other investigators may be able to furnish the explanations. The Avalos unit of the Compania Minera de Penoles, S. A., operates the Alicante, Bonanza, Providencia, Albarradon, San Eligio, Nazareno, Leona, Salaverna, and Santiago mines situated between Avalos railroad station and Concepcion del Oro on the Coahuila and Zacatecas railroad in the State of Zacatecas, Mexico. Some of these mines are within Penoles property while others are on mining claims leased from the Compania Nazareno y Catasillas, S. A., Mazapil Copper Co., and the American Smelting and Refining Co. The main office and camp are at Providencia, about 170 km southwest of Monterrey, N. L., so the silver-lead-zinc mines of the district are usually referred to as the Providencia mines. The Aranzazu, Catarroyo, and Cabrestante copper-gold mines are situated a few kilometers to the southeast on the same mountain range near Con- cepcion del Oro, the name by which the camp is known. It is operated by the Mazapil Copper Co. The main theme in the following pages is a description of the silver-lead-zinc ore occurrences of the district. Rock Formations Sedimentary Rocks: Many competent geologists have contributed generously to an ample fund of information concerning the sedimentary columns of northern Mexico. Among them are Carlos Burck-hardt, E. Bose, L. B. Kellum, and R. W. Imlay. Carlos Burckhardt, who covered a number of extensive areas in many parts of the Mexican Republic, devoted years to mapping the geology of the Caja, Zuloaga, and Santa Rosa mountain ranges around Mazapil, Concepcion del Oro, and San Pedro de Ocampo, Zacatecas. He did most of the original mapping which has been used as a basis and amplified by others. C. E. Burbridge and, more recently, John

Jan 1, 1953

By W. H. Triplett

Silver-lead-zinc replacement deposits occur in limestones of the anticlinal Caja range at Providencia, near Avalos, Zacatecas, Mexico. The description deals with intrusives, outcrops, preferred horizons, changes from bedding to fracture, control in depth, and variations in abundance and ratios of minerals throughout a vertical range of 500 m. THE purpose of this paper is to record a few field observations and accumulated office data concerning outcrops, relation of ore occurrences to intrusive and host rock, and mineral zoning. Reasons for some of the phenomena are not clear to the author so the facts are given with the hope that other investigators may be able to furnish the explanations. The Avalos unit of the Compania Minera de Penoles, S. A., operates the Alicante, Bonanza, Providencia, Albarradon, San Eligio, Nazareno, Leona, Salaverna, and Santiago mines situated between Avalos railroad station and Concepcion del Oro on the Coahuila and Zacatecas railroad in the State of Zacatecas, Mexico. Some of these mines are within Penoles property while others are on mining claims leased from the Compania Nazareno y Catasillas, S. A., Mazapil Copper Co., and the American Smelting and Refining Co. The main office and camp are at Providencia, about 170 km southwest of Monterrey, N. L., so the silver-lead-zinc mines of the district are usually referred to as the Providencia mines. The Aranzazu, Catarroyo, and Cabrestante copper-gold mines are situated a few kilometers to the southeast on the same mountain range near Con- cepcion del Oro, the name by which the camp is known. It is operated by the Mazapil Copper Co. The main theme in the following pages is a description of the silver-lead-zinc ore occurrences of the district. Rock Formations Sedimentary Rocks: Many competent geologists have contributed generously to an ample fund of information concerning the sedimentary columns of northern Mexico. Among them are Carlos Burck-hardt, E. Bose, L. B. Kellum, and R. W. Imlay. Carlos Burckhardt, who covered a number of extensive areas in many parts of the Mexican Republic, devoted years to mapping the geology of the Caja, Zuloaga, and Santa Rosa mountain ranges around Mazapil, Concepcion del Oro, and San Pedro de Ocampo, Zacatecas. He did most of the original mapping which has been used as a basis and amplified by others. C. E. Burbridge and, more recently, John

Jan 1, 1953

By H. A. Bedworth

ALLOYS of copper and silicon have been known for one hundred years or more but the commercial development of this type of alloy has taken place during the past few years. In 1905, Sperry1 proposed the use of copper-silicon alloys for springs and other purposes for which copper-tin bronzes were used. Some attention was given to this proposal at the time but no one succeeded in producing a practical alloy containing more than a fraction of a per cent. of silicon. The equilibrium relations of the copper-silicon system were studied first by Rudolfi2 and later by Sanfourche3 and Corson.4 The constitution of the system has also been recently investigated by Matuyama,5 and in the laboratories of the American Brass Co. by Smith.6 Some of the physical properties of the copper-silicon alloys have been investigated by Norbury7 and by Geiss and Van Liempt.8 Summarizing the results of various investigators of, the constitution of copper-silicon alloys, the solubility reaches its maximum value, 6.7 per cent. silicon, between 721° and 782° C. At 852° C. the solubility is 5.25 per cent., while at 400° C. it is only 4.1 percent. silicon. The copper-silicon alloy begins to get so hard at about 3 per cent. silicon that it is difficult to manage. It was found by Jacobs that the addition of manganese to this alloy considerably improved the working

Jan 1, 1929

By Herman Van Fleet, Frederick W. Neil, O&apos

The object of this paper is to describe the present status and possil~ilities of liquid oxygen as an explosive based upon the investigations, research and practical work of the Ingersoll-Rand Co., and of the Air Reduction Co., from early in 1922 to date. The following work was done. 1. A study of the history and physical theory of L. 0. X. as an explosive. (No attempt will be made in this paper to give the history or theory, as this has already been covered by the literature on the subject.) 2. An investigation of the use and the practice with L. 0. X. in the iron mines of Lorraine where L. 0. X. has its largest application in Europe. Although L. 0. X. is extensively employed in the iron mines of Lorraine, many of the mines using it exclusively, and blasting with it a total of approximately three million tons of iron ore per year, the fact that the mining practice in Lorraine1 is to drill comparatively shallow holes and blast only a few holes at a time, renders the data obtained there of very little value in estimating the possibility of replacing dynamite with L. 0. X. in American mining methods. In fact, in the iron mines in Lorraine, L. 0. X. replaced black powder, or its equivalent. 3. Laboratory research work on properties of absorbent materials. 4. Work in the Bureau of Mines explosive laboratory at Pittsburgh, Pa., on the properties of L. 0. 3. cartridges. 5. Practical work underground with L. 0. X. cartridges in the Kitherbee-Sherman iron mines at Mineville, N. Y. 6. Practical work in the quarries of the Calcite Quarry Co., Myers-town, Pa. 7. Practical blasting in several quarries and open-pit mines.

Jan 1, 1927

By A. C. Fieldner

IN the Wall Street journal for March 1, 1941, was a tabulation of the construction under way or under negotiation by thirteen iron and steel companies for a predicted increase in annual coke production of 3,165,600 tons. That even this figure was short of the mark is indicated by other plans, then being considered, for a later expansion of 2,610,000 tons additional. Considerable progress has already been made on thin program, for approximately 500 new ovens were put in operation in 1941. and well over 200 should be completed in 1942. These figures include a number of units that replace older and obsolete equipment.

Jan 1, 1942

Albert Ladd Colby, New York, N. Y. (communication to the Secretary†):—I observed (Trans., xxxvii., 585) that to obtain tenders from several American mills, the foreign engineer should modify his maximum phosphorus to 0.10 per cent., not as Mr. E. Windsor Richards quotes me, that no American rail-maker can produce rails under 0.10 per cent. of phosphorus. Mr. Richards claims that no English engineer would agree to accept 0.10 per cent. of phosphorus on any terms whatever. Mr. Webster writes that only after an engineer has .been convinced that rails can be made in America equal in every respect to those he is getting abroad, should he be asked to modify ally conditions in his specifications. I know it to be a fact that during recent years in many cases, as, for instance, When delivery could be secured more promptly in the United States than in Europe, the consulting engineers of several British and colonial railroads have frequently agreed to modify their phosphorus requirement to a maximum of 0.10 per cent., and the rails delivered' under these modified specifications have, under like conditions, given just as satisfactory service and proved to be no more brittle than similar sections of 0.07 per cent. phosphorus rails, rolled in England under the same specification except without modification as to phosphorus. Furthermore, it would appear from the analyses of British rails, quoted by E. A. Dancaster,2 in his discussion of Mr.

Jan 1, 1908

By Clyde E. Williams

THIS review of the progress made in iron and steel metallurgy during the past year is confined to developments in this country. It attempts to give examples to illustrate progress made rather than to appraise results. As a result of the gradually diminishing supply of rich iron ores and of predictions made as to the probable life of the iron-ore reserves of the Lake Superior District, attention of iron and steel executives was directed to the question of beneficiation of iron ores. Laboratory and plant-scale experimental work was conducted on the wash ores .of Minnesota and an investigation, was, begun on the Old Range low-grade ores.

Jan 1, 1931

By Cyril Stanley Smith

IsolatEd alloys of copper and silicon were prepared and examined by chemical methods more than one hundred years ago, but it was not until the work of Rudolfi l that the equilibrium relations were studied. The early history of the alloys was well described by Baradue-Muller 2 and need not be further discussed here. The diagram of Rudolfi, based entirely on thermal observations, showed sillcon to be soluble in copper up to 4.5 per cent. at 849" C., at which temperature there was a peritectic horizontal resulting from the formation of a ß phase with about 7.4 per cent. silicon from a and liquid with 7.85 per cent. silicon. The ß phase was believed to form a eutectic with Cu3Si at 820" C. and 9.8 per

Jan 1, 1929

By Cyril Stanley Smith

IsolatEd alloys of copper and silicon were prepared and examined by chemical methods more than one hundred years ago, but it was not until the work of Rudolfi l that the equilibrium relations were studied. The early history of the alloys was well described by Baradue-Muller 2 and need not be further discussed here. The diagram of Rudolfi, based entirely on thermal observations, showed sillcon to be soluble in copper up to 4.5 per cent. at 849" C., at which temperature there was a peritectic horizontal resulting from the formation of a ß phase with about 7.4 per cent. silicon from a and liquid with 7.85 per cent. silicon. The ß phase was believed to form a eutectic with Cu3Si at 820" C. and 9.8 per

Jan 1, 1929

By P. Beardmore, B. W. Howlett, B. D. Lichter, M. B. Bever

The heats of formation at 273°K of the compounds Mg2Ge, Mg2sn, and Mg2b, the heats of fusion and melting points of Mg2Sn and Mg2Pb, and the heats of solution of magnesium, germanium, and lead in liquid tin have been measured. The excess free energies of the liquid alloys and the free energies of formation of magnesium-Group IVB compounds at their melting points and their standard free energies of formation at 298°K have been calculated. The stability and bonding of the compounds are discussed with reference to these properties. Some thermodynatnic aspects of the liquid phases in the systems Mg-Sn and Mg-Pb are also considered. THE compounds of magnesium with the Group TVB elements, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead, have often been considered to constitute a nearly ideal homologous series. In particular, their thermodynamic stability has been assumed to decrease with increasing atomic number of the Group IVB element.' The binary-phase diagrams of the magnesium-Group IVB elements given by Hansen and Anderko2 have the same form. Each system has a single con-gruently melting compound of limited homogeneity range. The structures of these compounds, which have the formula Mg2X, are anti-isomorphous with the calcium fluoride structure. A recent investigation has found evidence of a second compound in the system Mg-Pb.3 The solid compounds Mg2Si, Mg2Ge, and Mg,Sn are semiconductors, while the conductivity of Mg2Pb approaches that of a metallic conductor. This difference suggests that other properties may also show a discontinuity. The investigation reported here is concerned with the thermodynamic properties of magnesium-IVB compounds and particularly their variations with the period of the Group IVB element. The heats of formation at 273°K of the compounds MgzGe, Mg2Sn, and Mg2Pb and the heats of fusion and melting points of Mg2Sn and Mg2Pb have been measured. The results, combined with published data, are interpreted in relation to the stability and the bonding characteristics of the compounds. Some thermodynamic aspects of the liquid phases in the systems Mg-Sn and Mg-Pb are also considered. In the course of the investigation the heats of solution of magnesium, germanium, and lead in liquid tin have been determined. 1) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 1.1) Samples. Samples of the compounds Mg2Ge, Mg2Sn, and Mg2Pb, supplied by Professor P. Aigrain, Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie Sans Fils, were used in measuring heats of formation, heats of fusion, and melting points. Samples of Mg2Sn and Mg2Pb, supplied by Dr. V. B. Kurfman, Dow Metal Products Co., samples of Mg2Sn, prepared at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, and samples of MgzPb, prepared in this laboratory, were used for additional measurements of the heats of fusion and the melting points. The samples were stored in evacuated Pyrex capsules or under nonreacting liquids. 1.2) Heats of Formation. The heats of formation at 273°Kof the compounds Mg2Ge, Mg2Sn, and Mg,Pb were measured by tin-solution calorimetry. In this method, samples of the compound and of a mixture of the constituent elements are added alternately from 0°C to a tin-rich bath. The difference between the heat effects, corrected for the change in composition of the bath, is the heat of formation of the compound. Details of the method have been given elsewhere. 4 The bath was maintained at 350°C for the dissolution of the compounds MgzSn and Mg2Pb. Since at this temperature the dissolution of Mg2Ge was too slow, a bath temperature of 400" or 450°C was used with this compound. At least three calorimetric runs, each of approximately six additions, were made with each compound. 1.3) Heats of Solution. The determination of the heats of solution of magnesium, germanium, and lead in tin was included in this investigation because they were not well-established at the time this work was started. To obtain the heat of solution, the difference

Jan 1, 1967