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Structural geological modelling is a process which results in a 3D computer model that represents the essence of the geological and structural understanding of an area and is presented in a way that is directly useable, typically by internal customer groups. BHP Iron Ore operates a number of open cut iron ore mines in the Pilbara Region of Western Australia. The largest mine is the Mt Whaleback Mine located at Newman close to the southern margin of the Pilbara Craton. The structurally complex Mt Whaleback Mine is the largest metalliferous single pit open cut mine in Australia with over 1.6 billion tonnes of original iron ore resource. Additional to the Mt Whaleback Mine, a number of satellite open cut iron ore mines are operated by BHP Iron Ore (BHPIO) in the Newman area. BHPIO also operates the Yarrie mine approximately 400 km north of Newman at the northern edge of the Pilbara Craton Most of the BHPIO mines are located in the Archean- Proterozoic Hamersley Province that overlies the Archean granite-greenstone terrain of the Pilbara Craton. The orebodies are considered to be the result of supergene enrichment of the approximately 2.5 Ga Brockman Iron Formation and the slightly older Marra Mamba Iron Formation. Folding represents the most prevalent and penetrative structural element in the Newman area. Four folding phases have been identified regionally (Fj, F2, F3, F5), while a more local folding deformation (F4) developed mainly in the Mt Whaleback and Orebody 29 mine area. A northeast trending, southeast dipping, 45 km long, high angle, normal fault zone, the Whaleback Fault Zone, cuts through the Mt Whaleback mine resulting in an approximately 1400 in gap in stratigraphy. Additionally, two large, low angle, normal faults, the East Footwall Fault and the Central Fault, are present at the Mt Whaleback Mine. During the formation of supergene orebodies, up to 40 - 45 per cent volume loss occurred resulting in local non-tectonic deformation in the orebodies.

Jan 1, 1997

By D McCoy

Titanium feedstocks are the building blocks of the titanium value chain. They can be mined directly, as is the case for ilmenite, leucoxene and rutile, or manufactured from ilmenite by extracting various quantities of non-TiO2 components from the ore by chemical and/or thermal processes.While feedstocks can be grouped into categories of materials with similar characteristics, they are essentially unique products from very different mining locations around the world. In fact, no two feedstocks are exactly the same. As such, the variations between the available feedstocks, in combination with the permutations in processing technologies to turn the feedstocks into titanium pigment or metal, mean that choices between feedstocks are specific to the location in which they are utilised.In this paper, the authors examine the key requirements of titanium feedstocks to the TiO2 pigment and metal sectors. Apart from the well known differences between feedstock choices for the sulfate and chloride process, the more opaque considerations in feedstock sourcing are examined.

Oct 5, 2011

By J Field

Many aspects of water use in mining are driven by the technical requirements for water. There has been little consideration given to both the safety and the health requirements. Workers in the mining industry are exposed to water from a range of treated and untreated sources. The intended use of this water dictates the required quality of the water, sometimes with limited consideration for contact with miners. Particularly for underground workers, there is exposure while working in and walking through groundwater possibly contaminated by hazardous substances. Where controls are inadequate the outcomes of this exposure can result in disease, illness and injury û the costs of which can be significant. The situation could also arise where, due to the lack of human exposure, the controls are unwarranted and the financial cost unjustified from a health perspective but warranted from an equipment management standpoint. In addition to the health aspects, water can impact on a range of safety issues resulting from high pressure usage, dust suppression, fire fighting and other processes. The protocols and procedures in place need to consider the safety issues in addition to managing water usage. The current state of water management in mines from an occupational health and safety perspective has been ascertained from a survey targeting underground and surface coal and metalliferous mines. This survey considered the health and safety issues associated with water use, the types of surveillance, control protocols and the strategies that the mines have in place to manage the health and safety risks associated with water systems. The results assisted in the identification of potential occupational health and safety risks associated with water systems and the management processes that may be appropriate from a risk management perspective. Health and safety issues are often neglected but remain critical issues affecting the value of water to the mining industry.

Jan 1, 2006

By D Hunter, N Cusworth, J Miller

"Recent project failures have called into question the use and relevance of benchmarking and independent reviews, forcing a rethink of traditional processes and procedures.With cost estimates and schedules dramatically varying from lows seen around the global financial crisis to peaks experienced in the recent mining boom, benchmarking has ranged between essential and misleading.Profound shifts are now underway in future project delivery strategies as the market moves away from cost-plus engineering, procurement and construction management. The current trends in project implementation are to utilise more lump-sum design and construct or fixed-price supply and construct contracts. This trend will remove transparency in detailed cost information by reducing the sources and clarity of cost data.Independent peer reviews (IPRs) of studies and investment recommendations performed over the last decade have both failed to prevent flawed or deficient projects from proceeding to approval and funding, and been successful in ensuring that owners did not proceed with doomed investments.In recent times, it has been recognised by some owners, contractors and engineers that traditional benchmarking checks or IPRs, or a combination of both, will not necessarily produce reliable assessments of study conclusions and of the forecasts of project outcomes. To be of value, the benchmarking process now also needs to recognise the highly volatile responses from the engineering and construction industry to the current and future markets for their services.Similarly, reviewers who draw upon benchmarks of past project experiences on an understanding of the things that shaped and influenced their outcomes need to be more aware of how a future dynamic market may impact the outcome of the projects and raise warning flags accordingly.With the commodity cycle currently approaching what is hoped is its bottom, ensuring that benchmarking and independent reviews evolve into reliable, transparent and worthwhile processes becomes even more important. This can only be achieved with more transparent and analytical benchmarking and business-orientated reviews that both recognise and calculate the impacts of dynamic markets on project implementation.CITATION:Cusworth, N, Hunter, D and Miller, J, 2016. The role of benchmarking and independent reviews, in Proceedings Project Evaluation 2016, pp 249–259 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 8, 2016

Small mines exist because of a restricted deposit or a small market. With the right management at the present time the small mine can have lower total costs than larger mines. Charbon is an example of a small mine with a restricted deposit and a specialised product. The development which incorporates a unique rail loading facility and flexible coal preparation plant was achieved with a modest capital outlay and in record time. To remain competitive in future with large scale mines who seek increased production the small mine must achieve increased productivity through automation, higher speed equipment and a multiskilled workforce. Deregulation of the industry, scrapping the Coal Industry Tribunal and the Joint Coal Board would benefit small mines greatly. Management of a small operation also requires multiskills which need to be supported by outside help in the form of consultants and temporary staff. In the 21st century small mines will continue to provide a service to the market.

Jan 1, 1988

Major Francis Hamilton Buchanan coined the term `laterite' (Latin; brick-rock) in 1807 for the red earths used for building blocks in southern India. Although these earths were actually weathered basalts, the term is now applied to weathering profiles developed upon a wide range of bedrocks. The Ni-laterites are a special class within the broad laterite family.

Jan 1, 1996

Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus- ries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business requir- ing not so much skill as labour. But as for myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. So wrote Georgius Agricola in 1556. He could have been espousing the sentiments of an indus- trial archaeologist investigating mining sites in 1986. South Australia has a very rich legacy from its industrial past-especially in the area of its mining history. Industrial archaeology, which is part of the broad field of archaeology, is concerned with the material and documentary remains of this industrial past. This includes the products and processes of manufacturing, industrial, technolog- ical and engineering activity and their relation- ships to people and the environment. `Archaeology' immediately conjures up the image of excavations in Greece or Eygpt. Excavation however is only a part of archaeological methodology. Industrial archaeology utilizes documentary historical rec- ords combined with field survey techniques (both above and below ground) to create a composite picture of the past. Interest in our recent past has burgeoned in Australia in the last few years. This interest manifests itself in many ways-the unprecedented popularity of Australiana and col- lecting, the plethora of Australian historic films, the growth of the National Trust, local historical societies and genealogical research. Fortunately these trends have been reflected in academic and legislative circles. Various univers- ities, institutes of technology and colleges of advanced education run courses in aspects of cul- tural resource management and conservation of the historic environment. These courses are com- prised of archaeology, architecture, geography, his- tory, materials conservation, museum studies, and national parks management and planning.

Jan 1, 1987

By A Finch, C Pridmore

The Cosmo Project falls within the Archaean to Palaeo-Proterozoic Pine Creek Orogen, one of the major mineral provinces of Australia.The Cosmo Deposit is interpreted to be a series of steep north-west-plunging gold mineralised vein, breccia and shear systems within the tight Howley Anticline and hosted within interbedded siltstones, mudstones, banded iron, phyllites, dolerite sills and greywacke.A folded environment poses a number of technical challenges, particularly for estimation.Handling of tightly folded and in some cases narrow domains might include subdomaining for orientation, omni-directional three-dimensional (3D) estimation within constrained domains or software-enabled unfolding/un-wrinkling procedures (transformation of the data and estimate space into a two-dimensional environment). Each technique has its own unique set of advantages and disadvantages.A further method (one applied at Cosmo) is where the estimation parameters (specifically search and variography orientation) are modified in a frequent or ‘dynamic’ sense to suit the orientation of the domain whilst maintaining 3D space. Control of the resource estimation orientation can be done in several ways, including the use of sectional panels of a specific size or, alternatively, orientation sector divisions. The sector approach provides some significant reductions in processing time over the panel technique and could be applied in a number of software packages.Three-dimensional ‘dynamic’ interpolation reconciles well with production data from Cosmo, whilst the sector method provides a practical technique that can be executed without the complications of transformation or the need for labour-intensive orientation subdomaining and with acceptable resource estimation run time.CITATION:Finch, A and Pridmore, C, 2014. Dynamic interpolation – estimation in a folded environment at the Cosmo Deposit, Northern Territory, Australia, in Proceedings Ninth International Mining Geology Conference 2014 , pp 107–114 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 18, 2014

By G Pitkin, D Sorley

The purpose of any consultancy is to provide a superior service for their client. Organisational structure is a key element in providing this service and differentiating between consultants.In an organic organisation the emphasis is on effectiveness, problem solving, responsiveness, flexibility, adaptability, creativity and innovation. Such an organisation is able to respond in a timely manner to change because employees are empowered to be creative, to experiment and to suggest new ideas. The process of innovation is triggered by employees throughout the organisation in a collaborative manner.Problem solving becomes a core competence of the consultancy. A multidisciplined approach arrives at superior solutions that are rigorous, holistic, achievable and often novel. It allows the mining consultancy to extract the most from a very talented and experienced team.This paper highlights the advantages of an organic structure for a mining consultancy and how to implement such a structure. It draws on examples of innovative problem solving from feasibility and strategic studies carried out in Australia and Africa.CITATION:Pitkin, G and Sorley, D, 2016. Organic management structure – its advantages in a mining consultancy, in Proceedings International Mine Management Conference, pp 155-162 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jun 22, 2016

By Wright D. J

Successful heap leaching depends on three major factors: 1. Chemical conditions appropriate for the dissolution of the valuable metal; 2. Contact between the leach solution and the valuable metal particles; and 3. Movement of the leach solution through, and out of, the heap. Given that appropriate chemical conditions can be provided, and the individual particles have sufficient permeability to allow solute/solvent contact, the problem of getting the solution to and from the particles remains. Non-uniform percolation of solution throughout the heap, caused by the presence of fines, is a common problem which occurs, to some extent, with all heap leachable ore. The conventional solution to this problem is agglomeration, which involves the attachment of fine particles to larger particles, effectively modifying the size distribution by preventing the fine particles from acting on their own. While agglomeration must be considered as an extremely effective technique with virtually no limit to its application from a technical point of view, its application is limited by economic considerations. A new technique has been developed which is not only a low cost alternative to agglomeration, but also has the potential for enabling the application of low cost heap and vat leach techniques to a significantly wider range of ores than current practice would suggest. The new technique, known as Electrokinetic Leaching, utilises electro-osmotic flow to enhance percolation through the heap. This paper describes and presents results of the laboratory testing, pilot heap operation and commercial application of Electrokinetic Leaching of a low grade gold ore and a tailings deposit. Comparative cost analyses between conventional and the alternative processing techniques are presented.

Jan 1, 1994

By O Joneydi, J Viljoen, R Funnell

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling is a useful tool that can assist engineers in designing effective ventilation systems for the control of airborne dust generated during mining operations. Thistechnology can save time, effort and the costs associated with re-work or the traditional on-site experimental field trials by running desktop 3D simulations of the various proposed scenarios using state-of-the-art CFD analysis tools. Before implementing a dust management system, an understanding of the behaviour of airborne dust particles in the face zone can be achieved, which can improve the confidence in the secondary ventilation and dust management design. Usingadvanced numerical models, suitable dust extraction strategies can be foreseen, and multiple scenarios can be simulated and investigated quickly. As a case study, dry drilling operations in Kimberlite orebodies produce large quantities of fine dust which poses health and safety risks. An effective dust management system is required to achieve acceptable face conditions. A possible practical solution is a ducted exhaust ventilation system with a force fan in the face zone. This paper demonstrates how CFD analysis can be used as a tool to assist the design engineer with validating and optimising the proposed ventilation design by tracking the trajectories of different size dust particles, to determine the best equipment layout and appropriate flow rates which minimises airborne dust.

Oct 12, 2022

By A Krishnan, C Garcia, I Luna-Berbesi

The discovery and exploration of deposits are progressively shifting to extremely remote regions and greater depths. As a result, exploration costs and the economic risk of a bad investment increase. Current megatrends in the exploration and mining sector indicate a growing demand for the implementation of automation, digitalisation, and machine learning techniques. The implementation of a multi-sensor-based core logging device (DMT, 2024) was done on 400 m of drill cores to optimise interdisciplinary processes in terms of time and quality, by using interlinked and consistent data in real-time, to obtain reliable predictions that support and speed up decision-making. The results are consistent with the laboratory data previously obtained by the mining company, highlighting the benefits of introducing ANCORELOG into their core logging procedures.

Sep 1, 2024

By K J. Riihioja, E Nozawa

SmartTag is a radio frequency identification (RFID) based technology designed to allow tracking of ore from its source through blasting, run-of-mine (ROM) pads, crushers, intermediate stockpiles and finally into the concentrator. This paper presents current developments and the future direction of the SmartTagÖ ore tracking system, as well as presenting some case studies. Successful applications of the SmartTag system have encouraged development to allow the system to be used in a wider variety of plants, in particular plants with finer crushing and screening stages. This presented Metso with a number of technological challenges, including RFID tag and antenna design. By reducing the traditional RFID tag diameter from 60 mm to 20 mm the RFID tags can now successfully pass through a secondary crusher. The new smaller RFID tags (referred to as mini RFID tags) have been used in some Process Integration and Optimisation projects with very promising results. The results indicate that the miniature RFID tags have a higher survivability to blasting and through secondary crushing stages. Extending ore tracking further through the process allows more reliable linking of spatial data with time based process performance. Metso is looking at developing even smaller micro RFID tags, and is also investigating other applications for the SmartTag system, including ore tracking from the original source to the final destination (ie from the mine, through the plant and ports to the customer).

Sep 26, 2011

By A Jewbali, R Perry, R Inglis, L Allen

"The use of conditional simulation to characterise mine plan uncertainty is increasing for the assessment of risk in mining projects. While the development of grade uncertainty profiles is relatively straightforward and can be validated using standard geostatistical techniques, the addition of geological uncertainty to evaluate total risk remains problematic. Some of the problems associated with geological uncertainty methods include the clustering of data in favourable geologic units, difficulty in training image definition and the inability to address change of support issues for categorical variables. Despite these obstacles, the importance of geological uncertainty as a contributor to total uncertainty has prompted Newmont to explore and evaluate the use of various techniques (and combinations of techniques) on different deposit types.Two orogenic deposits of different geological complexity were selected for the study: Subika, a shear zone-hosted deposit, and Merian, a deposit containing gold mineralisation associated with quartz vein zones and stockwork within which are found higher-grade quartz breccia zones. Newmont trialled various categorical simulation approaches to determine the applicability of these methods for each deposit type and the effect of parameter choice on the width of the uncertainty interval. Some of the techniques that were trialled include multiple point statistics methods, sequential indicator simulation using local probabilities as well as variations of these methodologies.The goals of this study included: gaining an understanding of which techniques may work best in which deposit types gaining an understanding of the intricacies of each method gaining an understanding of the effect that each method has on total uncertainty analysis.This paper presents a comparison of the various techniques and makes recommendations for their use in uncertainty analysis.CITATION:Jewbali, A, Perry, R, Allen, L and Inglis, R, 2014. Applicability of categorical simulation methods for assessment of mine plan risk, in Proceedings Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning Symposium 2014, pp 85–98 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Nov 24, 2014

By B J. Monaghan, R J. Longbottom, S Prabowo, D Del Puerto, B Maisuria, C W. Bumby

The use of hydrogen as a reducing agent can substantially reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the ironmaking process. Iron ore fines can be reduced in a fluidised bed (FB) using hydrogen (H2) at high temperatures (>800°C), although several studies have reported the sticking of particles which causes the bed to defluidise, effectively shutting down the process. Here, we report results from the reduction of New Zealand (NZ) titanomagnetite (TTM) ironsands in a small-scale laboratory FB (100 g) at temperatures between 800–1000°C using H2 flow rates up to 5 standard L/min. No sticking phenomena are observed under any of these conditions, which is attributed to the formation of a stable titanium-bearing oxide layer on each particle’s exterior, preventing iron-iron contact at the particle surfaces. Pre-oxidised NZ TTM ironsands have also been studied and shown not to stick. Interestingly, at lower reaction temperatures the reduction kinetics for pre-oxidised ironsands is faster than for as-received ironsands. This increased kinetic rate can be attributed to the preoxidation stage inducing micro-fractures that create a void for the hydrogen to diffuse into the inner regions of the particle. In addition, oxidation of TTM appears to segregate the particle into two distinct phases, a high Aluminium-Magnesium (Al-Mg) phase and a high Titanium (Ti) phase. The findings are important as increasing the operating temperature of the FB reactor results in a faster reaction rate and higher gas utilisation, making the process more economically attractive. Furthermore, oxidation of NZ TTM ironsands results in a faster reduction rate at lower temperatures (800°C– 900°C) opening the opportunity to reduce the reaction temperature which might be beneficial in a final commercial-scale process.

Sep 18, 2023

By P Albert, S Crispin, J Hertrijana

"An EXTENDED ABSTRACT is available for download. A full-length paper was not prepared for this presentation. The Martabe gold mine is Indonesia’s largest precious metals-only producer and is also one of few significant hard rock mine developments in the past 15 years. Martabe is located on the west coast of the island of Sumatra in the North Sumatra province. The mine commenced operation in mid-2012, producing over 280 koz of gold and 1.5 Moz of silver in its first full year of production.Martabe consists of a cluster of six currently identified high-sulfidation epithermal deposits. The deposits lie in a north–south corridor with an approximately 8 km strike length and 1.5 km width. The total Measured, Indicated and Inferred Mineral Resource Estimate of the deposits is currently 8.2 Moz of gold and over 75 Moz of silver.The exploration program at Martabe has added more than 2 Moz of gold and 15 Moz of silver to the Mineral Resource estimates (Measured, Indicated and Inferred categories) since G-Resources acquired the project in 2009. This has been achieved at an average cost of US$17 in exploration expenditure per ounce of resource added, which includes helicopter-supported drilling programs in rugged forest terrain.The factors that led to this exploration success at Martabe include: in the first instance and most importantly, recognition of the geological potential of the mineralised system continually updating and improving ‘orebody knowledge’ and applying new ideas to the exploration program ongoing engagement and consultation by world professionals with geological expertise in similar systems ongoing executive management support for the program the high quality of work completed by previous owners a strong focus on quality control, staff development and operational safety, with the JORC Code (in particular Table 1 of the Code) as the underlying basis for quality control continual and positive engagement with government, community and other external stakeholders.This paper will discuss in detail the first of these two factors. It is important for the modern exploration team to recognise that mineral potential on its own is not sufficient for exploration success, so this paper will touch on the other factors as secondary but crucial considerations.CITATION:Crispin, S, Hertrijana, J and Albert, P, 2015. Exploration success at the Martabe gold mine, Indonesia, in Proceedings PACRIM 2015 Congress, pp 567–572 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 18, 2015

The traditional concept of optimum drill and blast is that it is achieved when ore is produced at the lowest unit cost and, because of the complexities of most mining operations, represents a band which extends either side of an overall cost m

Jan 1, 1998

One of the earliest and continuing challenges in driving sustainable development in large scale resource industry projects is around the issue of assessment û how do you measure the sustainability of a mineral operation? One of the key road blocks when confronted with this challenge is the temptation of technical folks to reach for a definition of sustainability or sustainable development. But definitions, by definition, have boundaries and limitations that serve to constrain thinking û they limit the thinking of what we can achieve with sustainability (it also acts as a barrier that constrains innovation). Rather than seeking definitions, better understanding of the core perspectives around sustainability and their application to the minerals industry provides a much more powerful platform from which to conduct assessments. But it is only when these perspectives are combined with the right framework and supporting techniques that the complex becomes doable. With the support of the perspectives and the framework, various assessment and measurement methodologies can be used; the challenge is communicating to stakeholders the sustainability character of the project in ways that are meaningful and to which people can connect. Assessment is not about finding the best or most accurate methods that fulfil strictly academic and possibly abstract requirements. The challenge is to help people understand what the impacts are, and what the value contributions will be, in a format and language that make sense in their world-view.

Jan 1, 2009

By D Gerrard, J Begelhole, J Gerber

The Iron Magnet deposit has been mined since 2007 when Arrium (then OneSteel) commissioned the magnetite concentrator to supply feed to the pelletising plant in Whyalla. The concentrate quality requirement for the customer required consistent product with minimal variability. In the early stages of operation, it was identified that the feed variability introduced significant changes in the concentrate quality, which was outside the acceptable customer limits.In 2011, a geometallurgical regression model was developed that allowed for the estimation of concentrate quality produced from the feed material. This was based on a laboratory-scale Davis Tube Recovery (DTR) test performed on the feed material. The objective of the project was to characterise the raw ore in the pit to allow for blending prior to crushing. By blending the feed to the concentrator, minimal concentrate quality variation within the plant was achieved. The orebody was divided into geometallurgical classes, called ore types, based on the mineral texture and magnetic mass recovery. Each geometallurgical class consisted of material with similar metallurgical performances. For each individual blast pattern, the ore was grouped into the geometallurgical classes and a composite sample was created. The composite sample was put through the laboratory-scale DTR test and the results were used to estimate the metallurgical performance of the material.The characterisation process and feed pile build methodology was applied in early 2013 and went through an optimisation and streamlining phase. Since the implementation of the geometallurgical characterisation process, the plant has seen a significant reduction in concentrate variability and measurable throughput gains. The characterisation process has also increased the amount of material that is now classified as ore.CITATION:Gerber, J, Gerrard, D and Begelhole, J, 2015. Geometallurgy of the South Middleback Ranges magnetite deposit – predicting plant performance from the pit, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 555–560 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By P Navarra, R Kuhne

Dynamic simulation (discrete event simulation) is the preferred methodology to evaluate the impact of dynamic aspects of processing plants on the overall plant capacity. This tool can be used to: identify bottlenecks in the plant,justify upgrade and expansion projects by evaluating their impact, oroptimise maintenance and operating practices without disrupting the operation. Iron Ore Company of Canada's (IOC) pelletising plant is a complex operation because of multiple products, varying equipment capacity and shifting bottlenecks. Furthermore, with extensive capital requirements for projects and long lead times, a high level of confidence in project outcome is required. Therefore, a model of IOC's pelletising plant in Labrador City was constructed in 2007 by a joint IOC and Hatch team. The model includes both operational and metallurgical aspects in order to better capture the complexity of IOC operation. In this paper, the justification, boundaries, and functionality of the model are described. A comparison of simulation results to historical plant operation is given. It is observed that projects have interactions and that the benefits of combined projects are not equal to the combined benefits of the individual projects. Projects can have synergies that result in greater benefits when combined or can have overlapping benefits that result in lower benefits when combined. The power of the proposed modeling exercise lies in the ability to assess the impact of projects on overall performance.

Jan 1, 2009