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By Sameh M. Khella

This paper discusses the application of deep CFA piles for the foundation of structures in different ground stratifications with a focus on the application in Queensland region. Design, construction techniques and quality measures implemented during these procedures are described. Testing methods and verification of capacity, integrity and performance of these piles are also demonstrated. Case studies for this application are presented with an appreciation of this solution within the provided project conditions of each case. Examples of successes and challenges encountered over the course of application of deep CFA in Queensland are mentioned. Limitations of the technique and less favourable situations for its implementation are also highlighted.

Nov 1, 2022

By Alok Bhowmick

The most uncertain and challenging part of a bridge design and construction is the ‘Choice of foundation’. During the planning and conceptual design stage, it is extremely important to choose the right type of foundation. Wrong choice can lead to disaster for the project. This paper will present three interesting case studies of past bridge projects, to demonstrate how correct choice of foundation can help to meet the project commitments while the wrong choice of foundations can led to huge delay in project completion, leading to time and cost overrun.

Nov 1, 2022

By Takefumi Takuma, Tsunenobu Nozaki, Masashi Nagano

The city of Naruto in the southwestern part of Japan is situated at the mouth of the mighty Yoshino River. An approximately 1,000m-long levee/bulkhead along one of the river’s tributaries in the city was raised with prefabricated steel panel walls on a concrete base bulkhead. Some sections of the walls’ foundations were combi-walls made of sheet pile cut-off walls and interspaced pipe piles; both of which were installed with press-in piling because the new wall alignment was very close to existing homes and businesses. A Clamp Crane, which clamped onto already installed piles and moved forward and backward on them, was utilized for a segment where the access to its piling location was too tight for a conventional crane or a track-mounted pile driver to maneuver.

Sep 8, 2021

By Martin B. Hudson, Daniel Brescia, Zhangwei Ning

Due to the complexity and sensitivity of surrounding environments, instrumentation and monitoring (I&M) is critical for many urban deep excavations. The objects to be monitored include shoring bulkheads, retained embankments, adjacent buildings and roads as well as underground utilities. However, there are also plenty of constraints on the implementation of I&M such as: congested site space, difficult access to instruments, coordination among multiple contractors, and installation permits for private or public properties. Because of these constraints, sometimes the implementation of the initially planned I&M is delayed, its scope is reduced, and/or the continuity of monitoring is interrupted. For these reasons, it is important to implement the I&M with robust and redundant capabilities while providing minimal interference to the project construction and schedule. This paper describes state-of-the-art I&M technologies including automatic motorized total station (AMTS) with camera and automatic leveling device, reflectorless AMTS and IoT- based wireless sensors based on a case study of an on-going deep excavation project. INTRODUCTION In urban environments, deep excavations requiring the construction of temporary shoring bulkheads are becoming increasingly common, with the associated need to provide protection of the surrounding built environment during construction. Protection of the surrounding environment requires planning, engineering, construction, monitoring, and excessive shoring movement mitigation. The I&M is a vital component of the deep shoring implementation. In public projects, geotechnical I&M is often placed within the general contractor’s scope, whereas the majority of deep excavations are privately undertaken. For those private developments, sometimes the developer contracts the geotechnical I&M directly with the project geotechnical engineer or by a geotechnical I&M specialist hired by the project geotechnical engineer. In either the public project or private development case, the effective deployment of the I&M system relies heavily on coordination and collaboration with the project contractor.

Jan 1, 2018

By Donald A. Bruce

"The Deep Mixing Methods (DMM), in their current forms, have been employed in the United States since 1986, although an earlier version had seen service from 1954. The earlier developments were strongly influenced by practices in the Nordic countries and Japan, while by the late 1980’s several DMM systems had been developed in the U.S. itself. Since then, DMM has continued its evolution, principally via the challenges of a series of large, landmark projects, but also via distinct, significant technological advances. This paper highlights the key points in the history of DMM in the U.S., and provides an overview of the different methods currently in use.IN THE BEGINNINGIt is a common misconception that the history of applications of the Deep Mixing Methods (DMM) in the United States dates from 1986 when SMW Seiko Inc. — a subsidiary of Japan’s Seiko Kogyo Company — was established in the Bay Area. However, the author believes that Intrusion Prepakt Co.’s patented MIP (Mixed in Place) system had been used, albeit sporadically (about 30 projects are recorded), since 1954 (FHWA 2000, 2001). Ironically, by 1961 this single auger method had been extensively used under license in Japan for excavation support and groundwater control — by the Seiko Kogyo Company. By 1972, the original MIP technique had been succeeded by more advanced Japanese methods, involving multiple augers. Intrusion Prepakt have long since become defunct.The first systematic studies of contemporary Deep Mixing Methods in Japan began in 1967 when the Port and Harbor Research Institute of the Ministry of Transportation began laboratory testing using granular and powdered lime for treating soft marine soils. Fundamental studies continued through the early 1970’s, by which time the development of industrial scale equipment was well advanced, having its first application on a marine trial near Haneda Airport. Coincidentally, laboratory and field research also began in 1967 in Sweden (“Swedish Lime Column Method”) for treating soft clays using unslaked lime. Reportedly the progenitor was a Norwegian, Kjeld Paus, who had made observations on fluid lime columns in the U.S. It would seem that developments in Japan and the Nordic countries proceeded independently until 1975 when the technology leaders from each group (Broms and Boman; and Okumura and Terashi, respectively) presented their — very similar — findings at a conference in Bangalore, India. Limited technical exchanges ensued thereafter.Whereas the Nordic developments continued to focus on the use of dry reagents (cement and lime) and relatively light equipment compatible with operating on and in very soft clays and organics, the Japanese progressed into the use of fluid reagents (cement-based grouts) and heavier equipment for both marine and land-based projects. Thus, by 1986, there were a large number of proprietary (wet and dry) DMM systems in Japan, and a rapidly growing market already by then accounting for over 12,000,000 m3 of ground treatment."

Jan 1, 2015

By Jeff Hopple

"Bluestone Dam in Hinton, W.Va., along the New River, is owned and operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Completed in 1949, the dam is 165 ft (50 m) tall, 2,048 ft (624 m) wide, and encompasses a water shed that is 4,600 sq mi (11,914 sq km). The Bluestone Dam Safety Assurance (DSA) Program began in 2001, and is a multiple-phase construction project to upgrade the capacity and stability of the structure to meet the probable maximum flood event. Installing 216 high capacity rock anchors was a major feature of the work.The USACE selected Brayman Construction Corporation to perform Phase 2B of the construction modifications to the Bluestone Dam. Brayman was responsible for installing the high capacity rock anchors, which range in size from 3 to 61 strands and have a design load up to 2,145 kips (9,541 kN). Drill holes range in size from 6.5 to 15 in (16.5 to 38 cm), and required full length corrosion protection. Of the 216 anchors, 57 were installed on top of the dam to resist overturning and the remaining 159 were installed on the face of the dam at a 45-degree angle to resist sliding.To gain access to the face of the dam anchor locations, the project required dirt benches, excavations with temporary shoring, and steel platforms. To access anchors on the east and west abutment faces, the team excavated over 10,000 cu yds (7,645 cu m) of material. Support of these excavations included the design and installation of three soil nail walls with over 145 nails and 3,500 sq ft (325 sq m) of shotcrete. The project also called for a 780 ft (237 m) long steel platform to gain access to the spillway anchors. The Stratus Group designed the platform to support two 85 ton (80 tonne) crawler cranes and as many as five drill rigs that were the equivalent to a design load of 3.5 ton per sq ft (335 kN per sq m). Once the final platform design was approved, fabrication of roughly 3 million lbs (1,360 tonnes) of structural steel began. Brayman’s in-house fabrication shop, in conjunction with Dura-Bond Industries and Advantage Steel, collaborated to fabricate and install the platform in less than five months. Flexibility in the platform design allowed for sections of the platform to be lowered as much as 16 ft (4.9 m) to provide access to anchors at lower elevations along the spillway face. In addition to the main spillway platform, Stratus Group, Brayman, Dura-Bond and Advantage designed, fabricated and installed six other unique platforms to facilitate anchor construction on various areas of the dam."

Jan 1, 2014

By Derek Egan

"Abstract Construction clients want their foundation solutions to be right first time, every time; but it is often the geotechnical contractor who carries the most risk in achieving this. Robust validation to ensure that the installed geotechnical product is appropriate for the encountered ground conditions, will perform as required and be correctly measured for payment and record purposes is very important to minimise the contractor’s and the client’s risk. This paper outlines the development and operation of a robust real-time installation monitoring system which controls and validates the installation of driven cast in-situ (DCIS) piling. Using state of the art information technology the system allows the design engineer to interrogate the data acquired from the piling rig via his computer as the piles are completed. The use of the validation process, where data acquired during the driving of DCIS piles can be processed to estimate the finished pile performance, will be explained with reference to a new case study on large diameter DCIS piles. Examples of the routine use of the system will be presented to illustrate how automated monitoring of installation parameters can be used to raise the standard of reliability, efficiency and sustainability on piling projects. The conclusions to the paper will cover the key features and operational challenges characterising real-time monitoring of the execution of geotechnical works as developed from a number of years of experience of using a rig based data acquisition instrumentation system.INTRODUCTIONDriven Cast In-Situ (DCIS) piles have a long and successful history of use worldwide. The process, where a temporary steel drive tube, sealed at the bottom with a sacrificial base plate, is driven into the ground and filled with concrete before the tube is withdrawn, is well known (BS EN 12699, 2001 and Egan, 2013). Examples of large structures supported on DCIS piles installed by Keller UK include the Millennium Dome (now the O2 Arena) and the 2012 Olympic stadium in London.In recent times advances in piling rig instrumentation and telecommunications have enabled a new level of sophistication in the recording of installation parameters and the validation of pile performance. It is now possible to embed these features into the DCIS design and installation process which has improved the quality and efficiency of DCIS piling.This paper summarises the development and operation of a real time data acquisition and processing system for DCIS piling, but which is equally applicable to other forms of driven piling (for example concrete precast piling)."

Jan 1, 2014

By Adnan A. Malik, Tadashi Maejima, Jiro Kuwano

"ABSTRACTTheoretical approach to estimate the ultimate pile capacity gives a rough idea at the initial stage of design that later on strengthen by the execution of static pile load test at site. The static pile load test is the only best option for the estimation of ultimate capacity of various types of piles. There are various methods based on strength, serviceability, net deflection for end bearing, shaft adhesion, graphical and extrapolation approaches for the interpretation of pile load test data to calculate the ultimate capacity. In this paper an attempt is made to evaluate the best-fit method for the estimation of ultimate capacity of single helix screw pile. The pile load tests on model scale were performed on screw piles of different helix diameter. The purpose of adopting model scale of testing was to achieve a state at which settlement increases without further increase in vertical load. The ground was compacted with dry sand at denser state. It was observed from the test results that extrapolation methods such as Chin- Kondner and Decourt predict the load settlement curve of screw piles very well, however ultimate pile capacity was on higher side which may not be suitable for the strength of helix plate. Decourt approach to plot the pile load data showed clear indication of the deformation of helix due to strong subsurface condition. A modified approach in Decourt method is proposed for estimating the ultimate capacity of screw pile having deformed helix whereas reduction factor is suggested for Chin-Kondner method for the estimation of ultimate capacity of intact screw pile.INTRODUCTIONDeep foundations are used to avoid the soft ground at shallow depth that is not suitable for carrying the structural load. Different types of piles have been used to transfer the load to deeper stratum. The screw pile is one of the new piling method and its use is considerably increasing. It consists of a cylindrical steel shaft with one or more helices at various length of the shaft. The diameter of helices (Dw) is usually 2 – 2.5 times the shaft diameter (Ds). The pile is installed to the required depth through torque and pressure. The advantage of screw pile over other piling system is its quick installation mechanism, high end-bearing and uplift resistance, noise reduction and minimum use of man power."

Jan 1, 2014

By Nicolas Denies, Gust Van Lysebetten, Bart Lameire, Jan Maertens, André Vervoort, Noël Huybrechts, Flor De Cock

"Abstract Originally developed for ground improvement works, the deep mixing method (DMM) has increasingly been applied in recent years for the realization of soil and water retaining structures and as alternative to traditional foundation solutions. From practice, there is a real need for practical guidelines dealing with the execution, the design and the control of such applications. With the aim of developing such guidelines, the BBRI ‘Soil Mix’ project was initiated in 2009. Within this research project, deep soil mix (DSM) material from 38 Belgian construction sites has been tested. In spite of the large advances in the mechanical characterization of the DSM material, one major issue remains the representativeness of the typical core samples in comparison with the real scale behavior of the soil mix elements. There is among others the question of the influence of the unmixed soft soil inclusions on this behavior and the issue of the scale effect which must be considered in the design. In order to investigate these questions, 8 large scale UCS tests and 17 large scale bending tests have been performed on excavated soil mix elements. The present paper discusses results of this experimental campaign, presents some research perspectives and highlights different aspects related to the design of soil mix elements for the realization of retaining wall or foundation solution.INTRODUCTIONSince several decennia, the deep mixing method (DMM) has been used to improve the strength and deformation characteristics of weak soils. In recent years, deep mixing has increasingly been applied – in Belgium and in other countries – for the realization of soil and water retaining structures and alternative foundation concepts. With regard to the execution of the DMM, one can refer to the European standard EN 14679 on deep mixing (2005) that was elaborated under the umbrella of CEN TC 288 “Execution of special geotechnical works”. However, from practice, it has been experienced that this execution standard does not provide enough pragmatic information and guidelines, in particular for the more recent applications of the deep mixing method (with retaining and bearing functions). The same need by the sector for guidance rules linked to design aspects in the context of Eurocode 7 was experienced as well. With the aim of developing such guidelines and in order to provide feedback to the European standardization platforms, the Belgian Building Research Institute (BBRI) has initiated the BBRI ‘Soil Mix’ project (2009-2013) in collaboration with the KU Leuven and the Belgian Association of Foundation Contractors (ABEF), the Belgian branch of the EFFC. Within this research project, deep soil mix (DSM) material from 38 Belgian construction sites, with various soil conditions and for different execution processes (CVR C-mix®, TSM and CSM), has been tested (Denies et al., 2012)."

Jan 1, 2014

By Gray Mullins

This paper presents results from model and full-scale tests to assess the interface bond between a cast-in-place concrete seal slab and steel H-piles in cofferdams. Three different seal slab placement conditions - fresh water, salt water and bentonite slurry - were evaluated and the results compared against controls where no fluid was displaced by the concrete. Normal pile surfaces were investigated. Additionally, the situation of ?soil caked? piles was also tested. In the model tests, eight 15 cm deep, W6 x 15 sections were used for two different embedment depths of 1.5d and 2d, d being the depth of the section. In the full-scale tests, 16 specimens 35 cm deep (W14 x 90 sections) were tested with the embedment varied between 0.5d-2d. The results show that significant bond stresses developed even in the worst placement condition. Recommendations made for revising current values in specifications have already been implemented by the Florida Department of Transportation.

Jan 1, 2013

By Hiren J. Shah

The urban environment and geology create unique challenges for design and construction of deep foundations. The effect of these is prominently experienced in New York City. Three such project case histories are presented in this paper. The first project is a multi-use development. Relatively unusual glacial geology was observed at the site during the subsurface investigation phase. This played an important role in the selection of deep foundations as well as during construction. The design and construction aspects of the pile foundations, settlement estimates, a pile drive test program during design, piling equipment and production pile installation are discussed herein. A relatively smaller project is the second case history. A combination of drilled and driven deep foundations was employed in one area of the project due to its unique conditions. In another area of the project, an addition to a structure required the use of supplemental foundations to resist new additional loading. Tight space and load sharing with the existing foundations were important considerations in the design and construction. Finite element modeling of the existing and completed structure was performed which was an interesting aspect of the project. The third project case history involves a very large multi-billion dollar project in which various different types of deep foundation elements were used. The aspects requiring the use of such a variety of types and sizes of deep foundation elements included: geologic conditions, re-use of existing foundations, protection of adjacent infrastructure, construction staging, restricted space, loads, deep excavations, cost and schedule.

Jan 1, 2011

By Bruno Gemmi

A new warehouse built with prefabricated components over an area underlined by soft marine soil deposits started showing differential settlements well before its completion. Its 103 spread footings carrying up to 4,000kN (450t) axial loads had been cast on jet-grouted columns extending and penetrating a layer of sand at a depth of 10m (33ft). Investigations performed to assess the wholeness and consistency of the jet-grouted columns revealed a state of loose jet-grouted masses and uncontrolled, off target migrations of the jet-grouting. Most of the jet-grouting itself was settling. The following remedial solutions were suggested: 1. Construction of new and better controlled jet-grouted columns. 2. Cement-based soil grouting. 3. Expanding resin injections. 4. Minipiles drilled-through the existing footings and reaching into a denser layer of sand existing at 23m below grade. Remedial solution 1. was immediately discarded due to cost and the possibility of a repeating failure in this non-granular and highly compressible soil. Tests of remedial solutions 2. and 3. were carried out. The outcome of the grouting was monitored by Electro Resistivity Tomography (ERT) (Bares et al., 2003), an innovative 3D electro tomography procedure showing where grout had been actually placed and its migrations off target. A successful 4,000kN (450t) load tests confirmed the validity of the solution. Finally, upon the completion of a successful load test, solution 4. was chosen. It supplied the highest degree of reliability thanks to the ease of controlling the final and actual location of the minipiles and to the higher safety factor provided. All remedial work to install the minipiles was eventually performed inside the building. Additional load tests and settlement measurements confirmed the adequacy and success of the chosen solution.

Jan 1, 2011

By M. Dondelinger

This paper presents a comprehensive review of steel sheet piling including internationally manufactured hot rolled sections, their history, applications, installation and driving techniques. The discussion will cover both temporary and permanent installations; temporary piling used in construction of cofferdams with various bracing systems, deep foundation installations for buildings, bridges and tunnels, etc., and permanent piling used for highway, railroad and bridge construction as well as for riverbanks, piers, wharfs and docks, normally required for port facilities. In addition, cofferdams, as self-supporting gravity structures where interlock strength is of prime importance, will be discussed. The design and application of light, intermediate and heavy sections will be presented including heavy combined walls and information on Z-shaped, U-shaped and HZ sections and their corresponding interlocks. Emphasis is placed on new developments for design applications for deep foundations and waterfront structures within the "state of the art".

Jan 1, 2010

By Vincent Jue

In December 2009, the Italian High Speed Rail Network AV began running over the full 1000 km system length from Turin, at the foothills of the Alps to Salerno, on the seacoast south of the volcano Mt. Vesuvius. It runs through Alpine rivers, highly seismic active zones, mountains, river plains, and through some of the most densely populated areas in Europe as well as some of its most expensive real estate. The Italian High Speed Network?s technical/economic constraints and its regulatory/socio-environmental concerns well may mirror similar obstacles set to confront the nascent California High Speed Rail Program. The two types of constraints must be dealt with together to reach the best construction solution. It is estimated that more than 20% of Italian High Speed Rail Network costs were spent on ground engineering including over 150 km of tunnels, 200 km of viaducts and bridges and 650 km of embankments and trenches. However, it also is estimated that 25% of costs were spent on social and environmental integration of the new rail lines including over 6 square miles of green offsets, 160 km of anti-noise walls, and 300 agreements for socio-environmental work. This paper will look at four examples of innovative ground engineering solutions, each with its own intricate set of constraints: ? Foundation system for viaducts across the ?Po? and ?Ticino? rivers. ? Soil consolidation under railway embankments ? Requirement of short tunnels for physical and environmental reasons ? Construction of railway stations in a confined right of way

Jan 1, 2010

By Richard J. Finno

This paper presents an overview of methods that can be used to predict damage to buildings as a result of excavation-induced ground movements and describes an adaptive management approach for predicting, monitoring, and controlling excavation-induced ground movements. Successful updating of performance predictions depends equally on reasonable numerical simulations of performance, the type of monitoring data used as observations, and the optimization techniques used to minimize the difference between predictions and observed performance. This paper summarizes each of these factors and emphasizes their inter-dependence. Case studies are presented to illustrate the capabilities of this approach. Examples are given to show how optimized parameters based upon data obtained at early stages of excavation can be used to predict performance at latter stages, and how they can be applied to other excavations in similar geologic conditions.

Jan 1, 2010

By Peter de Kort

Tunnels in urban areas generally require deep excavations in soils under the groundwater table. In The Netherlands uplift loads are generally taken by piles installed into dense sand layers, which are hard to penetrate. To avoid nuisance and damage to the environment, piles often need to be installed using vibration free methods, which also have the advantage of low noise levels during installation. Drilling piles and obtaining a high uplift resistance is a contradiction in itself. Franki has adopted several installation methods based on the injection of grout during drilling and/or post grouting to overcome the difficulty of hard layers. This report presents two projects, situated in Rotterdam and Sneek, where vertical tension piles in floors, subject to high uplift loads, have been used. It also explores a project in Zeebrugge (Belgium), where tension piles are installed at an inclination of 1:1 to anchor a diaphragm wall for a quay construction. Test results presented in this report show, that vibration free and soil displacing piles can be installed in very dense sand layers and that a high uplift resistance can be achieved. It is also shown, that a variety of installation methods is available, even in limited space.

Jan 1, 2008

By Max Gwynn, Tony Suckling

"The new Wembley Stadium is the most spectacular soccer stadium in the world, built to the highest specifications, using the latest technology and offering visitors an unrivalled match-day experience. Wembley Stadium is the home of English soccer, dating back to 1918 when the British Government began planning a British Empire Exhibition with a stadium as its centrepiece. The Empire Stadium, as it was originally known, was completed in 1924 in just 300 days and cost £750,000 ($1.4m). It was finally closed in 2000.The new Wembley Stadium, which opened in 2006, features fully covered seats for 90,000 fans and a striking arch that sits above the northern half of the stadium. With a span of 315 m (1040 ft), the 133-m (440-ft) tall arch is the longest single-span roof structure in the world. It supports the entire weight of the northern roof and 60% of the weight of the southern retractable roof. This means there is no need for columns within the stadium and ensures unobstructed views.Multiplex Constructions (UK) Ltd. employed Stent Foundations Limited to construct the £10m ($19m) foundations package for the new stadium. The scope of works for the foundation package included the design and construction of all foundations, including all main works piling, temporary works piles for the arch and roof, and tower crane piles. The scope also included trial piling and pile testing, setting out and removal of spoil.Piles were constructed by using bored cast-in-place techniques with both hydraulic and traditional crane-mounted rigs. Stent also installed sheet-piled walls at three locations to the site’s northern boundary. In addition to the main contract works, Stent constructed a £2m ($3.8m) contiguous bored-pile retaining wall within the demolition and earthworks package (Figure 1). This work was carried out as a subcontractor to Griffith McGee."

Jan 1, 2008

By Edward Jacobsen

The Oak Creek Power Plant in Oak Creek, Wisconsin is currently undertaking an expansion project. In order to supply cooling water to this facility, a 27' (8.2m) diameter tunnel will be bored, in rock; to connect to 4 vertical Intake shafts located approximately 1.5 miles (2.4km) offshore in Lake Michigan. In 2004, Case Foundation Company was awarded a lump sum contract to Install these intake shafts. When complete, the plant is expected to circulate upward of 2 billion gallons per day (7.5 billion liters) through this system. Two shafts were drilled in a (shortened) construction season in 2005 and the remaining 2 shafts and 4 liner assemblies were completed in 2006. Future connection to the tunnel, in 2007, will be accomplished by mining upward to reach the lower portion of each liner and then removing its internal bulkheads to permit the flow of the lake water into the tunnel.

May 11, 2007

By Tim Chapman

This general report considers what promoters of deep basement projects want from their teams and whether they get it often enough. Most large projects are based on complex financial models where the funding is related to a future income stream. Project delays and cost over-runs can critically affect the financial model. Too often, delays and cost over-runs originate in the substructure and foundations. We must take positive steps to improve our industry's reputation for reliability.

Jan 1, 2006

By Harry G. Poulos

Ground movements can arise from a large number of sources and can have a significant effect on nearby piles and deep foundations. The loading of the piles by ground movements is a different mechanism to that arising from direct applied loading to the pile head, and consequently it is not generally possible to adequately analyze the effects of ground movements simply by applying some type of equivalent loading to the pile head. The main effects of ground movements are the development of additional movements, axial forces and bending moments in the piles, and thus the key design aspects are related to movements and to the structural integrity of the pile. However, the ultimate geotechnical load carrying capacity is generally not affected by the ground movements themselves. This paper will describe an approach to the analysis of ground movement effects on piles, considering axial and lateral movements separately. Some of the main features of pile response will be discussed for three specific problems involving ground movements: piles near and within embankments, piles near an excavation for a pile cap, and piles subjected to seismic ground motions.

Jan 1, 2006