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The Secretary : The work of Mr. A. E. Outerbridge, Jr., of Philadelphia, first made known in his paper on " The Mobility of Molecules of Cast-Iron," read at the Pittsburgh Meeting of the Institute, in February, 1896, has been reviewed by the Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin Institute, whose report, dated May 5, 1897, is accompanied with a table of tests made by the Committee, and amply confirming the statements of Mr. Outerbridge. Concerning the originality and novelty of his investigation, the Committee says: " The fact that a certain molecular change takes place in cast-iron in the course of time has been known and recognized by many persons for a long time, and that this change tends to relieve the internal strains and render the casting tougher has often been noticed and acted on, although in a very crude way; but, so far as the sub-committee has been able to learn, Mr. Outerbridge has been the first to make a careful study of this, and to note that the change may be hastened by impact, and the whole effect produced in a short time, and also to make a scientific study of the phenomenon. We believe great credit is due him for the initial observation and the careful work dependent thereon. The results were first given to the public in a paper read before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, on February 20, 1896. This aroused a wide-spread interest and discussion among users of cast-iron, and so far as the sub-committee has been able to determine, it has not been shown that anyone, either in this country or abroad, has antedated Mr. Outerbridge in his work in this line. The Franklin Institute therefore recommends the award to him of the John Scott Legacy Premium and Medal." This report has not been published, hut I have had the opportunity to read it in manuscript. The table of testa accompanying it comprises 91 tests of " rumbled" and an equal number of " not rumbled" companion-bars of cast-iron, 26 by 2 by

Jan 1, 1898

By Cyril Smith

IN the study of the structure or the properties of a series of alloys or nonmetallic compounds, it is often advantageous to express the com-position not as percentage by weight, according to which the material is always made up and analyzed, but as the atomic percentage of the two constituents. The conversion from the one to the other is repre-sented by the formulas: 100A 100x Y x 100 ? x/A A [1] A+ B x + A/B(100-x) X _ 100yA 100y [2] yA+(100-y)B or y+A(100-y) where x and y are the weight and atomic percentages respectively of the element of atomic weight A, and (100 - x) and (100 - y) are the per-centages by weight and by atoms respectively of the element of atomic weight B. While calculations according to these formulas are simple, they are' time consuming if several conversions have to be made. In 1931 Water-man' constructed a nomograph for performing the conversion, but this did not permit an accuracy greater than about 1 per cent to be obtained in the neighborhood of 50 per cent. Olander2 has proposed a graphic method simpler than Waterman's and one that gives a uniform precision throughout the entire scale. The possible accuracy is about 0.5 per cent of the whole, depending on the size and accuracy of the coordinate paper used. Recently, Hermann3 has described a slide rule for making the calculations. These devices make use of the simple rearranged equation:

Jan 1, 1933

By David Kramer, Cecil G. Rhodes

Critical transport currents were measured as a function of perpendicular external magnetic field in Ti-22 at. pct Nb wire samples. These samples were heat-treated to yield w Phase precipitates at denslties ranging from 10 to 10 17cm-3. The Precipitates are ellipsoids of revolution with major axes of 50 to 1300A. Flux-Pinning by w precipitates is responsible for the high critical transport currents that were ob- ThE ability of a type II superconductor to sustain a zero-resistance transport current (Jc) in an external magnetic field (H) is due to the presence of micro-structural features which can impede the motion of magnetic flux penetrating the superconductor under the influence of a Lorentz force. Such features are referred to as pinning sites. The pinning strength is tained. A sample cooled from 800°C and annealed 1 hr at 450°C carried a critical tramport current of 10 amp per sq cm at 30 kG. Variations in the current-carrying ability of this alloy are due to changes in its pinning strength which is a function of precipitate density and composition and of the composition of the matrix. the reaction of the bulk superconductor to the Lorentz force and depends on the efficiency of the individual pinning sites and on their volume density. The super -current density increases with pinning strength, other things being equal. The above concepts are discussed in detail in a comprehensive review by Livingston and Schadler.' In Ti-Nb alloys, as in other binary titanium alloys, the metastable hexagonal w phase usually forms below the p/a + p phase boundary near the titanium side of the phase diagram. Stiegler et a1.' have summarized much of what is known about w phase in titanium and zirconium binary alloys. The present work deals with

Jan 1, 1968

By F. B. Plummer

THE physical properties of oil-producing sands, such as grain size, porosity, and permeability, are becoming more and more important in petroleum production engineering as oil fields are being repressured and rejuvenated. A number of excellent papers have been published recently on all three of these properties. Faucher, Lewis and Barnes1 give a com-plete survey of the work done through 1932 and contribute also much information on sands that they themselves have examined. Muskat and Botset,2 Wykoff, Botset, Muskat and Reed,3 Hurst,4 and Muskat5 have contributed a great deal to the theory and actual measurement of flow of liquids and gases through porous media. Muskat and Botset have measured the permeabilities of different sands with gases and liquids. They find that the radial is always slightly under the linear permeability. However, in most of the previous experiments small samples of the sand were used, and the method of production of fluid or gas through the sands has not been very close to actual oil-field conditions. In addition, so far as the authors are aware, no measurements of linear and radial permeabilities have been made simultaneously under exactly the same conditions. The multiple permeability apparatus described here is a part of the equipment being acquired by this laboratory for thorough investigation of the physical properties of producing sands. It possesses certain advantages for comparative studies of liquid flow. Additional data and descriptions of other instruments will follow in papers to be written later on. The essential features of the permeability apparatus are as follows:

Jan 1, 1934

By L. V. Pirela, S. M. Farouq Ali

Some interest has been expressed recently in the application of solvents in conjunction with a thermal drive, such as a steamflood. At least one field project of this type has been reported. This paper makes the first attempt to provide some of the basic information necessary for choosing a solvent for such an application. Results of displacements conducted at elevated temperatures are also discussed. This paper shows that, in the case of alcohol-hydrocarbon-water or brine ternary systems, the system miscibility may increase, decrease, or both increase and decrease within the same system when the temperature increases. The distribution coefficient was consistently found to increase in favor of the oleic phase with an increase in temperature, which is advantageous from the standpoint of oil recovery. Results of solvent displacements in a sandstone core showed that even a relatively small temperature effect in the favorable direction (increase in miscibility and distribution coefficient) can lead to a 50 percent increase in oil recovery. On the other hand, if the system miscibility decreases with the temperature, even though the distribution coefficient increases, the oil recovery at the higher temperature may not increase. INTRODUCTION Miscible displacement has been the subject of many investigations. Miscible-phase solvent flooding, employing solvents such as alcohols that are miscible with both oil and water, has received considerable attention. Investigations conducted by Gatlin and Slobod,l Taber, Kamath and Reed,2 Holm and Csaszar,3 and Farouq Ali and Stah14 have helped in understanding the mechanism of solvent flooding. While the use of alcohols and similar solvents as oil recovery agents is economically unattractive, these solvents nevertheless provide a means of understanding the mechanistic aspects of important miscible-phase oil recovery processes such as the Maraflood process (discussed by Gogarty5). As shown by Taber et a1.,2 the phase behavior of a solvent-oil-water system is of .utmost importance in determining the efficiency of the oil displacement. This paper makes the first attempt to obtain the ternary phase behavior data for nine alcohol-hydrocarbon-water/brine systems at elevated temperatures. Results of core tests at elevated temperatures are also presented which corroborate the effect of temperature on oil recovery, as judged on the basis of phase-behavior data. The use of solvents at elevated temperatures has been suggested earlier by Farouq Ali.6 At least one field test of this type has been reportedO7 With the widespread use of thermal recovery techniques, it is possible in some situations (especially in steamflooding) that the use of a suitable solvent in conjunction with the heat carrier may be economically feasible. This paper attempts to provide some of the basic information needed for judging such feasibility. LOCATION OF THE PLAIT POINT The phase behavior of a typical ternary system consisting of a solvent, hydrocarbon and brine (or water) can be represented by a triangular diagram such as the one shown in Fig. 1 (for temperature TI). Point Pon the binodal curve represents the plait point, being the limit of tie lines such as Y1 Y2 The compositions of the coexisting oleic and aqueous phases are given by points Y2 and Y1, respectively, for any mixture composition along Y1Y2. The characteristics of ternary diagrams have been discussed by Findlay8 and others. Taber et aL3 have shown that the position of the plait point in a particular ternary system plays the decisive role in determining whether or not theoleic phase would be displaced in a continuous manner during an alcohol displacement. The area above the binodal curve also is important, since it represents

Jan 1, 1969

By C. W. Spencer, J. Singer

A PARTIAL phase diagram for the As-Te system is given in Hansen.' The only compound reported is As2Te3, melting at 362°C. Stoichiometric quantities of reagent-grade elements were reacted in evacuated quartz and directionally cooled. The resulting ingot consisted of very thin threadlike crystals from which only very small single-crystal fragments were isolated. A powder diffraction diagram disclosed nonisomorphism with the analogous V-VI compounds insofar as these have been reported; Sb2S3, As2S3, Bi,S,, and Bi2Te3 data in the ASTM index of powder patterns, together with the single-crystal data on Sb2Se3,2 were used for the com- parison with the observed spacings. Single-crystal data confirmed the uniqueness of the As2Te3 structure. Single-crystal Weissenberg diagrams have so far yielded the following data: As2Te3 is monoclinic, space group C-m (OkO data still lacking), a = 14.4A, b = 4.05A, C = 9.92A, ß = 97". The cell volume is about 5802. The set of isomorphous ortho-rhombic cells of Sb2Se3, Sb2S3, and Bi2S, are apparently related to As,Te, in having one lattice constant close to 4.0 and with cell volumes as large as 540A8. Assuming Z = 4 for As2Te3 also, the density is calculated as 6.1 which agrees well with a roughly determined value of 6.0. A complete structure analysis is under way.

Jan 1, 1956

. F. W. SPERR, JR.,* Pittsburgh, Pa.--Mr. Malcolmson states that the Carbocoal process produces ammonium sulfate in excess of that normally recovered in the ordinary byproduct coke process. Table 3 indicates that 20,000 to 25,000 lb. of sulfate of ammonia are obtained in carbonizing 1000 tons of Clinchfield coal. This is a high-grade coal and yields from 26 to 28 lb. of ammonium sulfate per ton in a modern byproduct coke oven. On the next page, 21 lb. is stated as the yield of ammonium sulfate per short ton of raw coal; this is less than the average production from any well operated byproduct coke-oven plant treating coal of the character usually coked, in Pennsylvania and Ohio. The statement as to the comparative yields of light oil is somewhat misleading in view of the results obtained during the past year or two by the more modern byproduct coke plants. The plants put in operation by the H. Koppers Co., during the past two years, are producing about 3.5 gal. of light oil per short ton of coal, and several of these plants are producing more than 4 gal. per ton. The yield of pure toluene runs from 0.45 gal. to 0.55 gal. per ton. .The quality of the light oil .obtained from the Carbocoal process is of much greater importance than would be inferred by one not closely familiar with the subject. The presence of paraffins in the benzol and toluol fractions seriously detracts from their commercial value; the benzol and toluol fractions derived fro in the Carbocoal process contain about 50 per cent, of paraffins. It should be thoroughly understood what these paraffins are. They are simply hydrocarbons that go to make up ordinary petroleum, and if a successful method for the removal of paraffins from benzol and toluol has been developed, this can at once be applied to several well known processes by which benzol and toluol can be made directly from petroleum, which have as yet been total failures on account of the contamination of these products by paraffins.

Jan 11, 1918

By ROBERT R. ABUOTT

Discussion of the paper of Prof. Albert Sauveur and, G. A. Reinhardt, presented at the Cleveland meeting, October, 1912, and printed in Bulletin No. 71, November, 1912, pp. 1335 to 1341. ROBERT R. ABBOTT, Cleveland, Ohio :-The possibilities of the commercial application of the facts brought out in this paper have been the subject of many experiments by me during the past four years. It will be well to call attention to several facts having a commercial bearing upon the problem: (1) The lower critical temperature (Ac) of a 3.5 per cent. nickel-steel of low carbon (say 0.20 per cent.) content is about 710° C. This is not lowered to any extent by increasing its carbon content by carbonizing,. By this I mean that a steel with Act occurring at 710°, must, after carbonizing, be heated above this temperature before quenching in order to make it hard. This is not contrary to Guillet's diagram, although at first thought it may seem so, due to a confusion of the Act and the Ar1, points. His diagram merely gives the physical condition of the steel upon slow cooling. Now a steel of 1.20 per cent. of carbon and 3 per cent. of nickel (point " B " of the diagram) may be martensitic upon slow cooling from three causes: (a) Its Ar1 point is below the normal atmospheric temperatures. (b) The time element is so important that the change from martensite to pearlite and cementite does not have time to occur even with this slower rate of cooling. We of course know that nickel has the tendency of retarding this change. (c) A combination of the above two causes. (2) With increasing nickel content the ability of steel to absorb carbon decreases. (3) Many carbonized nickel-steels show a martensitic. structure upon air-cooling, and yet ire so soft that they are of no commercial value.

Dec 1, 1912

By Theodor Zuschlag

Electrical prospecting is the art of exploring the structure of the subsoil in regard to conductivity variations and interpreting the results of such exploration as to their geological meaning. Electrical prospecting has been applied during the last few years with outstanding success, not only to prospecting1 for ore but also to structural studies.2 Both applications have proved helpful to the geologist, and the latter application especially promises to become of still greater importance in the future. The mapping of structures is the most important function of the oil geologist. Oil is lighter than water, therefore in water-bearing beds it will migrate upward until the migration is stopped by a bed impermeable to the oil. Geologic structures such as domes, anticlines, faults and terraces, offer good prospects in the search for oil accumulations and can be traced easily by electrical prospecting, provided they are composed of a series of sedimentary layers of which at least one possesses fair electrical conductivity and follows the general trend of the structure. Conditions for Successful Mapping The first condition, fair electrical conductivity, is met in almost any oil-bearing series, because generally the electrical resistance of a sedimentary bed is identical with the resistance of the more or less saline waters, filling partly or entirely the pores of the rocks.3 Briefly, the electrical resistivity of a bed can be expressed for all practical purposes by the product R X P, where R is the specific resistance of the waters in the rock pores and P a factor depending upon the percentage of water by volume in the rock. The specific resistance of any solution can be computed from the chemical analysis, being primarily a function of the

Jan 1, 1932

By E. H. Timmerman, A. F. van Everdingen, J. J. McMahon

The prevent paper contains a method which combines the material balance equation' with the water influx equation' to obtain reliable values for the active oil originally in place and a quantitative evaluation of the cumulative water influx. The method is illustrated by an application to a reservoir without original gas cap. In the absence of an original gas cap. results may be obtained using only field production and pressure data, PVT analyses. and a minimum of subsurface information. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR AND RESERVOIR FLUIDS Production in the field under review is obtained from the top of the Wilcox formation of Eocene age, at a depth of approximately 8,100 ft subsea. The structural map, Fig. 1, shows that the accumulation, half elliptical in shape with the long axis in east-west direction, is trapped to the north and on the upthrown side of a normal fault. A number of east-west faults with additional minor faulting in random directions are found in the general area, and seismic information and production performance indicate in this particular case the existence of a second fault a short distance downdip, with a strike more or less parallel to the fault controlling the accumulation. It is estimated that 1,830 acres were originally underlain by oil and that the maximum thickness of the original oil column, about 37 ft, was only slightly greater than the maximum thickness of the oil-bearing sand. Maximum net sand thickness was estimated at approximately 26 ft. From logging and subsurface information the gross sand volume has been placed at 37.400 acre-ft. which reduces to about 27,500 acre-ft after probable non-productive intervals have been deducted. The following table presents laboratory analyse; data for the Wilcox sand cores. Average Average Samples Considered Permeability Porosity All Samples 236 md ..19.9percent Samples with k>l md 256 md 20.5 per cent Samples with k>8 md 275 md 20.9 per cent Interstitial water was estimated at 15 per cent. The initial gas-oil ratio was approximately 900 cu ft/bbl. and the initial shrinkage factor was determined by the laboratory to

Jan 1, 1953

By Heinrich Ries

The fusion-point of clay has usually been considered to be influenced chiefly by the quantity of fluxing impurities which the clay contained. Those clays which contain a high percentage of fluxes, such as ferric oxide, lirne, magnesia, and alkalies, fuse at a low temperature. Aside from the percentage of fluxing-impurities, the size of the grains exerts an important influence. Yet, while this fact has, no doubt, been recognized by many, practically no attempts have been made to prove it by actual experiment, although in the case of fire-clays, Prof. H. O. Hofman has rather disputed it. To illustrate the point more clearly, suppose a clay to be made up of a mixture of very refractory grains, such as kaolinite, and some fusible ones. If this clay be heated, the more easily fusible grains will melt first on the surface, and the softening under heat will gradually extend from the surface of the grain to its center. The larger, therefore, the size of the grain, the longer the time required for the heat to penetrate it. Now, if two samples of clay contain the same volume of flux, but of unequal size, the one containing the smaller-sized grains should fuse first, because the fluxing materials are more evenly and thoroughly distributed through the clay, so that they will more or less surround the refractory grains, which tend to act as a framework and hold up the clay-mass when heated. In order to demonstrate the effect of fineness of grain on the fusibility of clay, several mixtures were made up, consisting of white clay and other minerals. The white clay used was a very refractory type from Georgia, the fusion-point of which lay about cone 35 of the Seger series. The mixtures were formed into small bars 1* inches long, and set on a narrow surface, so that the ends were free to bend as soon as the mass softened. They were burned in a Seger gas-furnace.

Jan 1, 1904

US 4,181,588 - Direct extraction of lead from lead sulflde ore. Ore is leached with a solution of ferric chloride and sodium chloride. The leach liquor is filtered to remove sulfur and gangue, then cooled in a crystallizer to precipitate lead chloride The slurry from the crystallizer is subjected to electrolysis to deposit lead chloride on the cathode plate. Solution from the electrolysis cell is used in the leaching step. M.M. Wong and F.P. Haver, assigned to US Secretary of the Interior Jan 1, 1980. 6 pp. (204-115). Filed: 1-4-79 (1,026).

Jan 1, 1982

US 4,132,635 -In the froth flotation beneficiation of low- grade siliceous iron oxide ore, an aqueous pulp of undeslimed ore is conditioned first with a reagent formed by incorporating a water-soluble polyvalent metal salt into an aqueous solution of sodium silicate and then with oleic acid or other anionic collector and optionally pine 011 or other frother. The conditioned pulp is subjected to flotation to concentrate Iron oxide values in the froth D. C. Yang, assigned to Michigan Technological University Jan 2, 1979 7 pp (209-1 66) Filed 1-1 3-77 (759,094) Drawing below.) [ ] US 4,133,038-In the froth flotation beneficiation of copper sulfide ore or other ores, an aqueous suspension of a mineral sample of uniform grain size and composition is conditioned with a strongly adsorbable collector in an amount which is a fraction of the amount sufficient to create a monomolecular layer on the mineral grains, and the conditioning continued until the entire amount of collector is adsorbed The conditioned pulp is subjected to flotation, the floated particles separated at timed intervals, and the flotation rate coefficient determined. By varying the degree of adsorption in repeated treatments, the dependence of the flotation rate coefficient on the degree of adsorption may be determined A Nieml Jan 2, 1979 10 pp (364-502) Filed 12-7-77 (858,353) Priority Finland, 5-26-75 (75/1,525) Same: British 1,533,723, dated Nov 29, 1978 Same Canadian 1,065,066, dated Oct 23, 1979 US 4,133,746System and method for maintaining substantially steady state conditions in the froth flotation beneficiation of copper ore, molybdenum ore, or other metal ores The mass flow of flotation concentrate from the cell is monitored continuously, and the rate of admission of aeration air into the pulp in the cell is varied inversely with respect to variations in the mass flow control of rougher flotation cells is accomplished with a single valve G W Dopson, assigned to Magma Copper Co Jan 9, 1979 6 pp (209-1) Filed 11- 23-76 (744,306

Jan 1, 1980

By GEORGE O. SUMAN

IN THE operation of oil properties there are various difficulties with pumping wells which can often be overcome or greatly lessened if sufficient attention is, directed towards pump and tubing problems. The difficulties referred to are the wearing out of pumps, sanding up of pumps, and the sanding up of the hole. As the perforations in the oil strings are large and the oil and sand loose and unconsolidated considerable trouble is often encountered in pumping wells due to the ease with which' the sand can come into the holes. DETERMINING FLUID LEVEL In determining the proper depth at which to tube a well it is essential to first find out something about the behavior of the fluid in 'the hole: Facts in regard to this natter can be obtained by finding the fluid level on pulling the tubing, by making a pumping test on the well tubed to various depths, and by bailing tests during cleaning out work. In ordinary oil field operations it is customary to take the fluid level at the time of pulling the tubing. This 'can only be done when the pump is not sanded up. There are two methods used in obtaining the fluid level. One method is to note where the outside of the tubing starts, to be covered with fluid when pulling the

Jan 1, 1925

By Byron E. Eldred

Generally speaking, the practical study of combustion has been made mainly from the stand-point of the steam engineer. This narrow view-point has left open a large field for scientific research on the application of combustion in other arts, where the conditions of heat-utilization are widely different from those presented in the steam-generator. The great economic importance of the boiler and the ease of measuring its performance, together with the comparative uniformity of conditions in the steam-generator, is, probably, quite largely responsible for the practical neglect of the study of the use of fuels in other arts save only on the basis of their thermal value. yet these other arts show quite plainly that a thermal-value basis alone is not sufficient. For example, in burning lime, under ordinary conditions of firing, a cord of wood will do as much work as a ton of coal, though the latter affords more than twice the number of heat-units. Similar results are evidenced in burning brick, in the roasting of certain ores, in reheating billets, and in many other, arts where heat is to be applied over extended areas to fragmental masses of more or less refractory materials. In these arts much is to be gained by a

Jan 1, 1911

[This paper was presented for the author, who is now in the National service, by H. M. Chance, and was illustrated by a working model built to the plans shown in the Bulletin, for February, 1918, p. 268. For more convenient operation, a small motor-driven centrifugal pump was attached to the overflow outlet (5, Fig. 1, p. 267) delivering to the inlet, 4. The pressure of ingoing water was then adjusted by a valve at 4, and was indicated by the column of water in a vertical glass tube connecting with the pressure chamber; an average pressure of 15 in. of water column was maintained during the demonstration. The sand used in the test was beach sand, which had simply been passed through a 20-mesh screen; about 45 per cent. was finer than 80 mesh. The circulation of water was at the rate of about 5 gal. per square foot per minute, and the rising velocity of the water in the box as a whole (not the velocity of the jets) was 6 in. per minute. At this consistency, the specific gravity of the fluid mass was between 1.55 and 1.60. Mr. Chance estimated that it would be possible to maintain a fluid mass of this consistency, 3 ft. deep, and with an area of 50 by 60 ft. with an expenditure of 15-hp. Mr. Chance then showed how a lump of coal would float on the fluid mass, and also made a separation of slate from coal on a small scale in a wire cage submerged momentarily in the fluid. The following demonstration relates to a matter not contained in the original paper, and was presented as of interest to the operators of cyanide and other lixiviation processes dealing with fluid mixtures of varying specific gravity.-Ed.]

Jan 4, 1918

By F. M. F. Cazin

In my first paper, relating in general to the movement of solids in a medium, I stated a newly-discovered natural law, and explained its application to mechanical ore-concentration. This law, as applied primarily to the motion of ships in water, had been announced, demonstrated and defended by me in the Journal of the Franklin Institute for March, April and May, 1893, and has not been controverted since then. I therefore contented myself in my first paper with the simple statement of it; and in order to avoid unnecessary repetition, I refer the readers of this paper to that statement (ante, p. 81) and to the earlier publication already mentioned.*

Jan 1, 1895

By C. F. Willis

The problem of the curtailment of forces in large numbers does not often come to employment departments and is, therefore, a problem that many departments are not prepared to handle intelligently. Those companies that are able to measure the individual efficiency of each man would probably lay off men according to their individual ability, irrespective of dependents, citizenship, or other considerations. During the war when labor was scarce, the business of the employment manager in industry was hiring men and carefully placing them where they were best fitted to work. The careful selection of employees had developed to a considerable extent before the war, and was becoming a recognized science. In the last few months, however, the cancelation of copper contracts, the accumulation of large stocks, the necessary curtailment of production because the copper could not be sold, and the lack of any immediate prospects of' the copper market opening, have led to a universal reduction of forces, and the problem that industry now confronts is that of discharging rather than employing. The problem has been aggravated by the cancellation of contracts in many war industries with the consequent turning loose of hundreds of thousands of men, a great amount of unemployment, and the return of the soldiers and sailors. The problem has now become one of reduction of working force with the least hardship and the least injustice, and yet caring for the soldiers, sailors, and marines who have been in the service of the government for nearly 2 years, and are now returning to their pre-war positions. The Copper Queen Branch of the Phelps Dodge Corpn., operating at Bisbee, Arb., found it necessary, like all of the other copper companies of the country, to reduce its force materially. In making this reduction it was, after due consideration, decided to classify employees with respect to dependents, length of service, and citizenship. The question of individual efficiency or workmanship was not considered. Copper produced to sell at 26 c. a lb. has been selling at under 15 c., and very little copper is being sold at all. Practically every copper producer in the country has enormous stocks on hand, and it would be profitable,

Jan 1, 1920

PAGE Problems of American Railroads Early in 1936, by J. J. Pelley 3 The Heavier Nonferrous Metals in Transportation, by C. H. Mathewson... 9 Light-weight Metals in the Transportation Industry, by Zay Jeffries 21 Trends in the Metallurgy of Low-alloy, High-yield-strength Structural Steels, by H. W. Gillett 40 Structural Steels and Light-weight Metals in the Transportation Industry, by Horace C. Knerr 62 Proposed Use of Alloys in Merchant Shipbuilding, by Edgar P. Trask 66 Mutual Effects of Metallurgy and Speed in the Automotive Industry, by Merrill C. Horine 84 The Railroads and Light-weight Equipment, by W. W. Colpitts 93

Jan 1, 1936

By G. R. St. Pierre, R. D. Blackburn

Oxygen contents of' liquid-iron alloys saturated with oxides are analyzed. Minimum points observed in particular Fe-X-O systems can be predicled by a simple extension of first-order interaction methods. If minimum oxygen content occurs at N; where r is the ratio of metal to oxygen in the oxide phase. RECENTLY, wisher' reported on solubility measurements of A1203 in liquid iron at 1580°C which support the earlier work of d'Entremont, Guernsey, and chipman2 and Gokcen and Chipman. Swisher's diagram is reproduced in Fig. l. Minimum points in oxide solubilities have also been found in the Fe-Cr-0 system,4 Fig. 2, and the Fe-Ti-0 system,' Fig. 3. Minima positions can be used to confirm approximately the measured first-order interactions, &, cgr, and E&~, in liquid iron and to deduce compositions of components of constant activity in the oxide phases. Consider the solution of Alz03 in liquid iron: for which an equilibrium constant can be written as: differentiating Eq. [2] with respect to Na~, the atom fraction of &l in the metallic solution, and noting that If the activities of Al and 9 are expanded by a first-order interaction model, then:

Jan 1, 1969