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By C. E. Corson

THE experiments of which the results and significance are set forth in this paper do not by any means cover the whole subject of the heat-treatment of the material referred to, yet they constitute a contribution to that general subject, rather than to the special department of annealing. The material here considered is acid open-hearth steel, containing from 0.50 to 0.80 per cent of carbon, with a nearly uniform percentage of other elements. This class of steel is rapidly increasing in commercial importance. It is even rumored that the rail-specifications of some railroads will hereafter require open-hearth steel. Yet this particular grade seems to have received less study and description from the standpoint of the metallographist than many others. The investigation here described was directed to the following points:-Steel containing about 0.50 per cent, of carbon : 1. The structure as related to the temperature, at the same rate of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to temperature at different rates of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to different finishing-temperatures and different rates of cooling; 4. The bearing of these observations upon the statement of Prof. Albert Sauveur.1

Sep 1, 1906

By B. S. Old, E. R. Poor

PRODUCING more steel without major capital investment in new plants is one of the most perplexing difficulties which confront the nation's postwar steel industry. The lack of scrap at a reasonable price results in an especially heavy pressure being brought to bear on the pig-iron production facilities which consist of 245 blast furnaces scattered throughout the country but concentrated most heavily in the Pittsburgh-Chicago area. Present demands exceed the total optimum output of these existing blast-furnace plants. Management hesitates to authorize erection of new plants on a scale sufficient to satisfy 'the demand for pig iron for two main reasons: first, extensive building under the present high costs of construction would greatly increase . the over-all capital investment per ton of iron capacity; and, second, the amount of steel necessary for a major construction program would upset the already tight supply-demand situation. The answer to the problem would then seem to be the development and application of a method which would increase the capacity of existing blast furnaces with a minimum of alterations and expense. Experiments consisting of operating a blast furnace at higher-than-normal top pressures, as proposed by Arthur D. Little, Inc., were carried out by the Republic Steel Corp. initially during World War II, and much more extensively during the past twenty months. The results of the Republics trials indicate that pressure blowing is a solution to the problem of increasing pig-iron capacity without necessitating major changes to existing equipment.

Jan 1, 1948

Jan 1, 1965

By PROCEEDINGS OF MEETINGS

THE opening session of the Institute was held at Hazle Hall, Tuesday evening, October 27th, with a large attendance of members. President Raymond called the Institute to order, and after a few introductory remarks, introduced Mr. I. Lowthian Bell, President of the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, and Honorary Member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Mr. Bell was received with great applause, and made his acknowledgments in a brief speech, of which the following is the substance: He desired to thank the Institute personally for the honor conferred upon him in his election to membership, and also for the invitation extended last year to the body of which he was President. The difficulty felt by many members of the Iron and Steel Institute, of leaving for a long journey the works of which they had charge, aggravated by special industrial troubles at the time of the invitation, had obliged them to conclude that it could not then be accepted in a fitting manner. The iron manufacture of this country is a subject of great interest to Englishmen, who look with pride upon the achievements on this side the water of the descendants of a common ancestry. His own reception in this country had far surpassed in cordiality even the well-grounded anticipations he had formed from the assurances of the President and other friends. Notwithstanding the flattering manner in which his friend, in introducing him to the Institute, had spoken of his contributions to the science of iron metallurgy, he could not take to himself alone the significance of this welcome. He knew it was a recognition of the services rendered by the body which he had the honor to represent; and he was glad to see present a member of that body, Mr. Thomas Whitwell, who had fortunately been able to make the journey at this time, and whom he had had the pleasure of meeting on the shores of Lake Champlain. He had been requested to say something of his impressions of the American iron industry. It was not easy to digest so soon the vast

Jan 1, 1875

By John Birkinbine

(New Haven 'Meeting, February, 1909.) AWAKENED public interest in efforts to conserve natural resources will certainly be appreciated by the members of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and a discussion upon conservation may well form a part of one of the Institute meetings, for the records of papers and discussions which appear in the 38 volumes of its Transactions are replete with evidence of effort's in this direction. Every process which reduces the fuel consumed or the power applied per unit of product; every utilization of waste material, or employment of that formerly rejected, to obtain something of value ; every feature of construction or operation which lessens the labor required or increases the output per employee, is an advance in the direction of true conservation. This may not appear from the records of late conferences or from published articles, in which the effort seems to be concentrated upon reducing the consumption and presenting to the people of the country estimates of exhaustion of natural resources. I rejoice in the awakening of public interest in a matter so important for the present and future welfare of our nation; I appreciate the possibility of much good following conferences of the Governors and delegates from various States and from national societies; and I recognize the interdependence, not only of different States, but of contiguous nations. In fact, the marvelous development of transportation by land and by water, and the decreasing rates at which commodities can be moved great distances, have in many cases practically obliterated geographical boundaries, and nearly every country on the globe can either market its product in other lands or draw upon them for raw or manufactured materials ; hence, conservation is an international subject.

Apr 1, 1909

The Delegation of American Engineers constituted by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, that visited France in December, 1918, in acceptance of the invitation extended by the Congrés General du Genie Civil consisted of the following: Representing the American Society of Civil Engineers, Major James F. Case, past president, Geo. F. Swain, vice-president, Nelson P. Lewis, treasurer, Geo. W. Tillson, past director, Geo. W. Fuller, director, A. M. Hunt. Representing the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, president, Chas. T. Main. Representing the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, past president, L. B. Stillwell. Representing the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers past-president, E. C. Spilsbury. The delegation organized on the way over by the choice of Major James F. Case as chairman, and Geo F. Swain as secretary. On arriving at Bordeaux, the Delegation was met by Mr. S. D. Brown, associate member of the American Society of Civil Engineers; and on its arrival in Paris it was joined permanently by the following attaches: Captain P. Charton, of the French Engineers, Delegate of the Commissariat-General to accompany the Delegation and serve as liaison officer; Captain Carpenter of the American Army; and Mr. Geo. Herdt, representing the Society of Civil Engineers of France. The object of the visit was to discuss with the French engineers the large engineering, problems now facing France. Engineering problems in their restricted technical sense came up for discussion practically not at all, for the French do not need advice nor assistance along strictly scientific lines. It was in the -larger and economic aspects of engineering, to aid in building up the industries and commerce of France, that our French associates desired to learn from the experience of the American Delegation.

Jan 9, 1919

By AIME AIME

THE following paragraphs comprise such information as the Secretary has been able to obtain concerning the members and associates whose deaths have been reported. Further particulars or corrections of errors, and biographical data concerning deceased members or associates not already noticed in this way, are solicited. Pat Doyle was born in 1849. At the age of fifteen he entered the Civil Engineering College of Madras, India, and left it at seventeen, having achieved special distinction in mathematics, chemistry,. and geology. Before be was eighteen years old he was in charge of two of the most important Sub-Divisions in the Madras Presidency, where he had ample opportunities for acquiring a preliminary knowledge of his profession, which was his chief object in joining the Public Works Department. In 1867, his energetic measures saved the island of Seringham from disastrous inundation. At this period he began contributing to the press ; and after a varied practical experience he came into public notice again in 1876, with an article in the Colliery Guardian on Indian Mines and Mining. In 1877 he became a Fellow of the Statistical Society of London. He was a founder of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society and a life member of the parent Society of Great- Britain and- Ireland, as well as a member of the Independent Asiatic Society of Bengal. In 1878-9 he was Chief Superintendent of the Public Works of Perak; was active in having the Associate Member Class added to the Institution of Civil Engineers; and became a member of the Society of Engineers of London and of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. In 1880 he went to the Southern Colonies and held several appointments in Australia, where he became a member of the Johnsonian Club, Brisbane, and the Queensland Philo-

Jan 5, 1908

Annual Meeting,Wallace, Idaho, Nov. 15-16, 1913. The third annual meeting, which was also the eighth consecutive meeting and the second to be held in the Coeur d'Alène district, was held in Wallace, Idaho, Nov. 15-16, 1913, with side trips to Kellogg-Wardner, Larson, and Mullan, where several mills were visited. The meeting was held jointly with the Montana Section, about 50 members and guests being present. Headquarters were in the Samuels Hotel, sessions being held in the public library. The arrangements and program were in the hands of the following local committee: George W. Roddewig, W. Earl Greenough, H. M. Childs. At 2.30 p.m., Nov. 15, the first session was called to order by Prof. F. A. Thomson, member of the Executive Committee, adjournment being taken to the Mine Rescue car, where Mr. Anderson and his assistant entertained the visitors for nearly two hours by demonstrations of mine-rescue and, first-aid practice, after which the party visited the Hercules mill, mention of which was made in the report of last year when the Section visited the plant. There are, however, several important alterations and additions to the flow-sheet to be noted, such as substitution of Chilean and Hardinge mills for the Huntington mills in the regrinding department; rearrangement of the tables and slimers, with a noticeable addition of the later models of the Franz machines, and the installation of the Wyman flotation process, which has been tried out, or is being tested, with more than ordinary success, on the middlings in several of the mills of the district, the Green Hill Cleveland mill being provided with a 100-ton unit, partly described below

Jan 12, 1913

By H. B. Charmbury, D. R. Mitchell

Everyone in the coal industry from top management to the preparation engineer is vitally interterested in recovering as much salable coal as possible from the run-of-mine product. Coal losses from a preparation plant occur in the solid refuse material being discharged from the plant and in the bleed-off slurry from the water circuit. The refuse is generally hauled from the plant in solid form by trucks, conveyors, or aerial trams to the refuse or culm banks or it may be crushed and transported by hydraulic methods to refuse ponds or dams. The loss of coal in refuse material and the extent of this problem has been covered in another paver.' The loss of salable coal in the plant bleed-off slurry is one of the water circuit problems in coal preparation plants. Slurries originate at various places in the processing circuits and are usually disposed of by transportation to waste ponds known as slurry ponds. Even though the combustible material discharged as slurry and refuse from the plant is labeled a loss, the loss must only be considered temporary. There is a tendency at the present time to examine refuse and slurry losses and to reprocess these materials to recover valuable coal. Slurries from eight bituminous coal preparation plants in central and western Pennsylvania have been sampled and examined to determine the amount of recoverable coal in each. Examinations of the samples were made to determine the tons per hour of solids and the gallons per minute of water in the slurry; the size, ash, and sulfur analyses of the solids; and the sink-float characteristics of the larger solids. The extreme fines (—325 mesh material) from one of the samples has been examined further to determine the micron size fractions as well as the ash and sulfur content of the micron sizes. Collection of the Samples: Field trips were made to each of the plants where samples were obtained and discussions held with the preparation engineer prior to sampling. The flowsheet of the plant operation was studied and a time-period selected to obtain a representative sample. At least 20 1-gal samples of total plant bleed-off suspensions were collected at each plant in increments over designated periods belived to be typical of the plant flow Three of the samples were obtained from plants in the Pittsburgh area. Each plant supplied information on the capacity, operating time, type of cleaning equipment used, water and material balances, and auxiliary equipment. From the time required to collect given amounts of slurry and from the amount of solids in the slurry, total solids discharges from the plant were calculated and compared with the plant flow. Ash and sulfur analyses of the total solids were also checked, at some plants, with company figures. In all cases where checks could be made there was reasonable agreement between company figures and those reported here. Analysis of the Slurries: Representative fractions of properly agitated samples were examined in the laboratory to determine the specific gravities of the slurries. The solids and water were separated by filtration to check the weight of each so that the percent of solids in the pulp could be determined. From the resulting data, presented in Table I, it may be seen that the percent solids in the slurries ranges from 2.8 to 39.0 and the amount of solids from 2.61 to 45.61 tph. Size Analysis of Solids: Representative fractions of the slurries were permitted to settle and the clear water was removed by siphoning. The solids were then wet-screened at 28, 35, 48, 65, 100, 150, 200 and 325 mesh. Results of the size analyses are presented in Table 11. These results indicate the extreme variation of sizes and in most cases the degree of fineness of the solids. The amount of —325 mesh ranges from 22.5 to 84.5 pct and the amount of+200 mesh from 8.3 to 69.1 pct.

Jan 1, 1961

By Bradley Stoughton

AT THE meeting of the Board of Directors on May 20, the resignation of Bradley Stoughton as Secretary of the Institute was presented and regretfully accepted by the Board. The letter of resignation follows : Gentlemen: About two years ago, I indicated to the President and some members of the Board my belief that the office of Secretary of the Institute should not be a permanent one. It is my observation of events, not only in our own Institute, but also in several sister societies, that too long a tenure of office by the Secretary inevitably leads to a situation which is not good either for him or for the society. After submitting this in writing to the Directors on February 17, 1920, I was overpersuaded by members of the Board to defer resignation until a more convenient time for the

Jan 1, 1921

By Thomas T., Read

SUGGESTIONS that existing schools give instruction bearing on the mineral industry, or that schools for that purpose should be established in the United States, began to be made early, and it would require too much space to catalogue them all. Some of the more important may be mentioned to indicate their general character. In the "advertisement to such parents as have now (or expect to have) children prepared to be educated in the College of New York," which appeared in the New York Mercury of June 3, 1754, Samuel Johnson, the first president of King's College, the predecessor of Columbia, said that it was the "design of this college to instruct and perfect the youth," among other things, "in the arts of Numbering and Measuring of Surveying, and Navigation and Geography. . . . and in the Air, Water and Earth around us, and, the various kinds of Meteors, Stones, Mines and Minerals, Plants and Animals; and in the knowledge of all Nature in the Heavens above us, and of everything useful for the Comfort, Convenience and the Elegance of Life . . . " Though the concept that natural science should be used to enlarge the bounds of human life was thus implicit at Columbia from the very beginning (John Stevens graduated from it in 1768, James Renwick in 1807, Horatio Allen in 1823, and A. W. Craven in 1829), it was only during the period of Renwick's professorship of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry (1820- 1853) that much attention was given to applied science.* Among the Austin papers, published by the American Historical Association,2 there is a draft in Stephen F. Austin's handwriting of a proposed memorial from the legislature of Missouri to Congress, not only urging "the propriety and utility

Jan 1, 1941

By Maurice Magee

The Ducktown ore deposits have been known, explored, and mined for 120 years. Eight massive sulfide ore bodies occur in highly folded and metamorphosed graywacke, graywacke conglomerate, mica schist, chloritegarnet schist, and staurolite schist of Precambrian age. The ore deposits are tabular bodies that have been extensively folded, generally conform to the enclosing rocks, but show local complex differences. The ore deposits, ranging in size from 250,000 tons to over 20 million tons, are composed principally of the minerals pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite. Gangue minerals are quartz, calcite, actinolite, tremolite, hornblende, garnet, and masses of schistose wall- rock. Three fault systems are present that have influenced ore control and ore body configuration. Hydrothermal effects are evident in wall-rock alteration. Evidence of retrograde metamorphism is extensive in the wall and ore associated rock. Preliminary isotopic age dates have indicated four possible metamorphic events during the Paleozoic Era. Ore genesis is considered to be hydrothermal replacement of receptive beds, predominantly highly calcareous zones, quartzitic zones, and brecciated shear zones. Ore deposition is thought to have occurred during the Devonian Period, with later mobilization and recrystallization of the ore and gangue during Middle and Late Paleozoic times.

Jan 1, 1968

By H. J. de Haan, J. van Lookeren

In view of their size and favorable characteristics, Shell's heavy-oil fields on the eastern coast of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela — known as the "Bolivar Coast" — are obvious candidates for the application of thermal recovery methods. During the last decade various methods have been tested, such as steam drive,', steam soak and in-situ combustion.3 Steam soak was discovered as a promising production method rather accidentally in 1969, during early steam drive testing in the Mene Grande Tar Sands1 When steam erupted at the surface due to breakdown of the overburden, the injection wells were back-flowed to relieve the reservoir pressure. This resulted in high oil production rates, all the more impressive because the reservoir is unproducible by primary means. It was concluded that injection of limited amounts of steam might be a very effective method for stimulation of heavy-oil wells. To obtain information that would be more widely applicable, testing of the process was continued in the eastern part of the Tia Juana field (Fig. 1). Here even more favorable results were obtained than in Mene Grande. This created sufficient confidence to prompt a large-scale project, which was considered essential for an adequate evaluation of ultimate recovery, steam requirements, mechanical problems and economic prospects. To obtain an early answer on the ultimate recovery a fairly depleted area was selected in the western part of the same field ("A" in Fig. 1). The first steam was injected in March, 1964. This paper describes the performance until the end of 1966. The production mechanism and well inflow performance are discussed in some detail. In view of the favorable results obtained so far, steam soak operations have expanded considerably since the start of this project. Presently, five other projects are under way, of which two are about the same size as the one under discussion, with further extensions being programmed. Description of the Project Reservoir Data Shell's part of the Main Tia Juana reservoir has a proven area of 8,800 acres and an average net oil sand thickness of 130 ft. It contained an initial quantity of 2,750 million bbl of stock tank oil (STOIIP), with an API gravity ranging from 10 to 15 API and a viscosity of 100 to 10,000 cp (at 122F). As a geological unit it is known locally as the Lower Lagun-illas member of the Lagunillas formation, which is early Miocene in age. The sand bodies are believed to be distributary channel sands deposited in a lower coastal plain. Most of the channel sands have lateral and some vertical communication. The field was developed mainly in the period from 1936 to 1950. The ultimate primary recovery is estimated at 18.1 percent of STOIIP, of which 12.5 percent STOIIP had been produced by the end of 1963 from some 540 wells. By then the average pressure had decreased from an initial value of 960 to 550

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert Stefanko

With passage of the Clean Streams Act of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and its impact on the coal industry, considerable research has been conducted to explore various approaches to the problem, including deep-well disposal. Available drillhole data from gas and oil wells were used to develop cross -sectional maps for various portions of the state and potential disposal zones were evaluated. Bethlehem Mines Corp., faced with a severe water problem at its Marianna operation in Washington County, cooperated with the Dept. of Mining at The Pennsylvania State University in establishing a 1500-ft well into the Salt Sands for the purpose of determining the feasibility of mine water disposal. The thickness, porosity, and permeability of the formation at the well site proved to be below what had been anticipated from drillhole data. Further, subsequent hydraulic fracturing did not improve the flow characteristics of the well; pumping pressures remained in the range of 1800-2000 psig for disposing of water at the rate of 150 gpm. The legal problems of disposal at the site were very formidable. When the Salt Sands proved to be less than satisfactory, permission could not be obtained to dispose in other promising formations. The paper details many of the problems associated with the experimental well and makes an assessment of the potential for deep-well disposal of mine water. The concept of disposing of liquid industrial wastes by deep-well injection is not a new one. Brines associated with crude oil long have been disposed of in this manner, with the additional benefit of aiding secondary oil recovery. More recently, with the expansion of nuclear energy, the lethal, highly radioactive wastes which are by-products of the fission process have created severe disposal problems. During the past ten years, a variety of industries have resorted to subsurface disposal, some of the details of which are given e1sewhere.l,2 The list reveals wide variations in injection rate, pumping pressure, cost, and waste disposition. Included are successful installations in Western Pennsylvania. Enactment of more restrictive clean-water legislation in Pennsylvania recently had a great impact on the coal industry. Among its provisions was the reclassifica-tion of most mine water as industrial waste whose dis-posal is prohibited in any stream of the Commonwealth. This had the effect of accelerating research in a variety of areas, although treatment methods still retained primary interest. When a feasibility study of deep-well disposal was proposed to the Pennsylvania Dept. of Mines and Mineral Industries, the Coal Research Board (CRB) approved it. This paper summarizes the efforts on this project. Acid mine water is a chemically complex liquid. having no definite quantitative relationship among its constituents. However, it is the iron disulfide (FeS2) associated with practically all coal seams that produces the objectionable products present in acid mine water when combined with air and water. The principal contaminants are sulfuric acid (H2SO,) and ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)2. Ferric hydroxide is a rust-colored gelatinous precipitate that coats stream bottoms and destroys aquatic life. However, other ions and bacteria are present in acid mine water in varying amounts.

Jan 1, 1971

By E. J. Roberts

Hydrometallurgical operations and many processes in the chemical industry require the separation of dissolved material from solids. One of the decisions which has to be made in designing a plant for such an operation is how this separation shall be accomplished. It is the purpose of this paper to set forth the general principles involved in such separations in order that the optimum flowsheet and equipment may be selected. Countercurrent Decantation with thickeners, or C.C.D. as it is generally known, is, of course, only one way of separating dissolved material from undis-solved. Other unit operations such as Countercurrent Filtration (C.C.F.) and Countercurrent Classification (C.C.C.) are widely used. The same principles may also be applied to centrifugally assisted decantation, as with nozzle or solid bowl type centrifugals, and to separations using screens, either gravity or centrifugal type. Another form of countercurrent washing applicable to granular materials is practiced in continuous ion exchange operations. All of these operations depend on two basic principles, or combinations of these principles. In C.C.D. type operations the solids are concentrated into the smallest possible volume of liquor in each step and the resulting pulp then mixed with a more dilute liquor and recon cen trated, the liquors separated from the more dilute stages being advanced to dilute the more concentrated liquor in a previous solids concentrate, as is shown in Fig. I. This will be termed the solids concentration-solution dilution principle, or, for short, solution dilution. countercurrent decantation- type circuits. The second principle used in washing solubles from solids is that of solids concentration-solution displacement. Here the solids are restrained from movement while wash solution is forced through the interstices in a counter-current fashion, as in Fig. 2. In the simplest application of this principle, once the "cake" has been formed, it is not disturbed until the operation is completed. In continuous filters, the cake is merely moved under the successive washes and the displaced filtrates removed as in Fig. 4. Often, however, after one or two displacement washes, a repulping step is introduced, the cake reformed and washed again. This procedure brings the solution dilution principle into play as well as the solution displacement principle. Merely thickening ahead of filtration, which is often operationally advantageous, does not hybridize he circuit. It still can be a pure solution displacement operation from the washing

Jan 1, 1961

By T. R. A. Davey

The fundamental principles by which bismuth may be removed from lead by pyrometallurgical processes are enumerated. Qualitative discussion of the phase diagrams concerned is followed by presentation of quantitative diagrams. Brief mention is made of the practical aspects. Data presented show how chemical lead (<0.005 pct Bi) may be produced by the Jollivet, Dittmer, and Kroll-Betterton processes. BISMUTH is an element whose properties are very similar to those of lead, and its minerals are associated to a greater or lesser extent with nearly all the major lead ore deposits of the world. In consequence, the lead produced contains bismuth unless a special debismuthizing process is practiced. There does not appear to be any published comprehensive review of the effect of bismuth as an impurity on the properties of lead, and there is some uncertainty as to the beneficial or detrimental effects of small amounts of bismuth in lead used for particular applications. Standard specifications of most countries stipulate a maximum bismuth content of 0.005 pct for chemical lead. With one exception, this specification is met only by lead producers whose ores are relatively bismuth-free, or whose refineries are electrolytic. In lead for certain applications a higher bismuth content is preferred by some fabricators.&apos; In contrast to the refining for silver, copper, and antimony, the refining for bismuth does not usually result in a large overalil economic gain from the sale of byproduct. Thus, debismuthizing is customarily practiced only if market conditions demand a lead with a bismuth content lower than that produced by classical refining; i.e., softening, desilverizing, and zinc refining. Until this century, debismuthizing was carried out only a:; an incidental result of desilverizing, as later described. This century has seen the development of the Betts electrolytic process—the only successful one of many electrolytic processes proposed and patented —and a number of precipitation processes based on the pioneering work of Kroll,&apos; although only one of these, the Kroll-Better ton process,&apos; is in wide commercial use today. It is proposed in this paper to deal only with the pyrometallurgical processes, excluding those based on aqueous electrolysis. Historical Background Prior to 1833 silver (and incidentally bismuth) could not be removed from lead. To recover silver from rich bullion, the only course available to lead refineries was to cupel the bullion, forming a slag of litharge. The first slag tappings or skimmings, on reduction, yielded soft lead of very low silver and bismuth contents. Intermediate skimmings yielded a lead of somewhat higher silver and bismuth contents, which could if desired be recupelled. The last skimmings yielded a litharge very high in bismuth, which could by successive oxidation and reduction cycles be separated into high purity bismuth, and lead returns. This oxidation reduction process, with modern operating techniques, can still be used today to produce a portion of a lead refinery&apos;s output of very low bismuth content, as discussed later. In 1833 Pattinsone discovered that lead bullion could be purified of silver and bismuth by fractional crystallization, the primary lead crystals formed by partial freezing being purer than the melt. Repeated processing in pans produced a lead containing as little as 0.02 pct Bi. The simple explanation of this

Jan 1, 1957

By C. H. Mathewson

MY treatment of the subject of "Metals of the Future" is imaginative rather than statistical or scientific, because reliable information concerning useful concentrations in the form of ore deposits of by far the majority of the elements does not exist and the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the unfamiliar metals are recorded only in fragmentary and uncertain form or not at all.

Jan 1, 1944

By J. B. Clark

In multiphase ternary diffusion studies, plots of the variation bf the composition on the isotherm constitutes one of the most effective methods of presenting experimental results, especially if such plots are made in a manner which relates the composition path on the isotherm with the diffusion layer structure in the couple. Unfortunately, if different conventions for plotting are used serious misinterpretations occur readily, causing apparent disagreement between investigators who actually share the same viewpoint. A common convention for mapping these diffusion paths is needed at this time because with the increasing use of the electron-probe X-ray microanalyzer, a much greater number of ternary diffusion studies can be expected in the near future. In an effort to prevent unnecessary confusion in the future litera- ture, a convention for these plots is proposed, as outlined below. A hypothetical example of the use of these conventions is given in Fig. 1 where the path of composition through the diffusion structure of the 100 pct A/50 pct B, 50 pct C couple is plotted on the appropriate isotherm of the ABC system. The lower case letters relate the region in the diffusion layer structure to the appropriate composition on the ternary isotherm. 1) The diffusion path is plotted on the isothermal section corresponding to the diffusion temperature of the couple. 2) The terminal compositions of the plotted diffusion path are the initial compositions of the couple halves—provided infinite boundary conditions are maintained. If, in either couple half, infinite conditions are not maintained, then the path terminates at the composition of the exterior surface of the couple. If, at this surface, the composition varies with time or if the plotted path is time dependent, then the diffusion time should be noted beside the plotted path. 3) A solid line crossing a single phase field (e.g., line a-b in Fig. 1) denotes an existing layer of that phase in the diffused couple. 4) A dashed line crossing a two-phase field parallel to the tie lines (e.g., line g-h) represents an interface between the two phases with interfacial compositions designated by the ends of the tie-line. The line represents no spatial extent. 5) A solid line crossing a two-phase field so as to cut tie lines (e.g., line b-c or line j-k) represents a locally equilibrated columnar two-phase layer. The solid line should cut those tie lines which correspond to the lateral interfacial equilibria along the columnar

Jan 1, 1963

By M. Cohen, P. E. Beaubien, D. Caplan

Addition of 1 pct Mn to Fe-26 CY ca/(ses a12 increase in scaling rate at 870° and 1090°C. Whereas only the rhombohedral oxide, formrs on tire manganese-free alloy, with manganese present major amounts of the spinel .Mn0 . Pro-duced through which diffusion is more rapid. At 1090°C the scale formed OH Mn is highly, irregular due to blistering and sintering, This is a second cause of faster oxidation Since much of the blistered oxide does not participate as part of the protective layer. The oxide phases that form at different times depend on the degree to which the surface metal has become depleted, in manganese by preferential oxidation. PREVIOUS work has demonstrated that the oxide scales formed on chromium steels at high temperature consist of both spinel and rhombohedra1 phases and may contain considerably more manganese, especially in the spinel phase, than is present initially in the alloy.&apos; It has further been observed that a binary Fe-26 Cr alloy scaled less rapidly than an equivalent commercial steel and formed no spinel.&apos; However, it is not established if manganese in chromium alloys actually promotes formation of spinel nor if it affects oxidation resistance. It seemed expedient to try to evaluate the specific effect of manganese by oxidizing an Fe-26 Cr alloy containing a small manganese addition under the same experimental conditions as used for the manganese-free alloy.&apos; EXPERIMENTAL Table I shows the composition in weight percent of the Fe-26 Cr-1 Mn alloy and of the Fe-26 Cr alloy used as reference. The alloy with manganese was prepared from the vacuum-melted Fe-26 Cr alloy by remelting in vacuum with the proper manganese addition. The ingot was rolled to strip and specimens 1.1 by 0.035 by 5 cm and 1.1 by 0.5 by 4 cm cut out or machined. As previously described2 the specimens were smoothed by abrading through 600-grit Sic paper, electropolished in acetic-perchloric acid (20 to 1) to remove 10 p of metal, annealed at 1100°C in 20 torr of purified argon, and electropolished to remove a further 10 p of metal. They were then either rinsed in water and methanol and blotted dry or immediately etched for 45 sec in deoxy-genated 4 N HC1 under cathodic polarization at 10 pa per sq cm. Oxidation runs were carried out in a vertical tube furnace in a flow of purified oxygen at 1 atm while the weight increase was recorded continuously on a* automatic balance.3 Alter 98 hr at 870.C or 20 hr at 1090"C the specimens were removed to flowing argon and observed microscopically for evidence of spalling as they cooled. Subsequently they were examined by X-ray diffraction, the oxides analyzed chemically, and metallographic cross settions prepared. RESULTS Figs. 1 and 2 show the oxidation curves of Fe-26 Cr-1 Mn at 870&apos; and 1090C. The Fe-26 Cr reference runs are shown as dashed curves. Experimental details of the six runs are included in Table 11. The first 20 hr of run 1 is repeated in Fig. 2 to show the effect of temperature. At 8&apos;70°C the weight gain for Fe-Cr-Mn is about twice that of Fe-Cr (curve 1 vs curve 2, Fig. 1). Both alloys show regular oxidation curves. On parabolic coordinates (right-hand scale of Fig. 1) the

Jan 1, 1965

By C. Crussard, R. Tamhankar

It is the policy of The Metallurgical Society to provide, in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AIME, a prompt and accurate medium for publication of reports of significant new research in both the scientific and engineering aspects of metallurgy. Papers submitted to the Society are judged by competent reviewers accord-ing to established criteria for technical merit, accuracy, originality, and presentation. STAFF: Editor, Gerhurd Derge Carnegie Institute of Technology Schenley Park Pittsburgh 13, Pa. Editorial Assistant, M. A. Redmerski Staff Coordinator, James J. Burke THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: W. R. Hibbard, Jr., President; J. C. Kinnear, Jr., Past-President; John Chiprnan, Vice President; T. D. Jones, Treasurer; R. W. Shearman, Secretary. PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE OF THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: A. W. Thornton, Chairman; Dennis Carney, John Chip-man, J. C. Fulton, J. H. Hollomon, H. H. Kellogg, A. E. Lee, R. Maddin, J. D. Sullivan, and D. Swan. Review and selection of manuscripts is under the supervision of the following Publications Committees: Extractive Metallurgy Division: T. B. King, Chairman; S. J. Dickenson, R. P. Hermsdorf, R. Schuhmann, Jr., and P. T. Stroup. Institute of Metals Division: Robert Maddin, Chairman, F. Lincoln Vogel, Jr., Vice-chairman, W. A. Backofen, R. W. Balluffi, J. H. Bechtold, M. B. Bever, R. S. Busk, C. G. Goetzel, Paul Gordon, C. D. Graham, .Jr., Robert F. Hehemonn, R. I. Jaffee, F. E. Jaumot, Jr., Irving R. Kramer, A. J. Lena, Harold Margolin, C. J. McHorgue, Russell A. Meussner, J. B. Newkirk, H. W. Paxton, G. E. Pellissier, I. S. Servi, Alan U. Seybolt, A. J. Shaler, and Jack Washburn. Iron and Steel Division: J. C. Fulton, Chairman; T. B. King, F. C. Langenberg, W. 0. Philbrook, and T. 0. Winkler. Published bimonthly by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., 29 West 39th Street, New York 18, N. Y. Telephone: PEnnsylvania 6-9220. Subscription $20 per year for non-AIME members in United States and North, South, and Central America; $25, foreign; $5 for AIME members. Single copies, $4.00, single copies foreign, $5.00. The AIME is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed in its publications . . . Copyright 1958 by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. . . . Registered cable address, AIME New York ... Indexed in Engineering Index, Industrial Arts Index, and Chemical Abstracts... Second class postage paid at New Yark, N. Y., and Ann Arbor, Mich. Volume 212, Number 6.

Jan 1, 1959