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By D. J. Chaiko

Certain radionuclide ions (e.g., TcO4) exhibit unusually strong Affinities toward the polymer-rich phase in aqueous biphase systems generated by combinations of salt solutions with polymers such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly(propylene glycol) (PPG). Thus, aqueous. polymer ,phases could potentially be used to selectively extract these ions during pretreatment of radioactive tank wastes at Hanford. To help develop a fundamental understanding of the interactions between various ions and polymers in aqueous solution, interaction enthalpies between sodium -perrhenate and a random copolymer of PEG and PPG (UCON-50) were measured by microcalorimetric titration. An entropy compensation effect was observed in this system in which changes in enthalpic interactions were balanced by entropy changes such that the interaction free energy remained constant and approximately equal to zero.

Jan 1, 1999

By F. Elgersma

A high purity electrolysis solution is essential for hydrometallurgical zinc winning processes. For this reason ferric iron containing compounds such as jarosite are precipitated as iron and impurity collector during the calcine leaching. Jarosite thus forms a chemical waste and creates environmental problems. This research contributes to the development of a wet jarosite treatment process, where less contaminated jarosite is produced which can act as an iron source. The present work studies jarosite precipitation kinetics and the uptake of zinc cations in batch and continuous experiments. The distribution coefficient for zinc in continuous experiments is constant for a wide ratio of zinc over ferric ions in the solution. Addition of NH, + ions in batch experiments accelerates the conversion rate equivalent to the driving force increment. Addition of 50,2-ions above the stoichiometric ratio increases the conversion rate less then could be expected from the increase in the estimated driving force. Zinc ions tend to retard the conversion rate. An increasing reaction temperature increases the conversion rate. Below 75 ?C the conversion rate approximates zero.

Jan 1, 1990

By R. Hurman Eric

The dew-point technique of activity measurements take advantage of the volatility of a component in solution. The pressure of the volatile component over a sample is determined from observations of the temperature at which condensation of the vapor occurs. The method is applicable best when the vapor pressure of the components would differ by about two to three orders of magnitude. Experimentally, this is a closed system involving the use of evacuated and sealed transparent quartz sample probes. Furthermore reliable vapor pressure data of the volatile component is essential along with a specialized high temperature furnace capable of giving reproducible results. In this context, the vertical Dew-Point Furnace (DPF) was designed and built after elaborate trails until enough proficiency was gained for reproducible results. Over the years the DPF was modified and improved. The DPF developed was versatile and could easily be used for activity measurements in the isopiestic mode (another method of measuring activities of a volatile component in a solution). The necessary ancillary systems; namely evacuation-flushing-evacuation followed by sealing of quartz sample probes under vacuum were also perfected over the years. As and when necessary the dew-point technique was supplemented by classical equilibration-quenching method employed on the sealed quartz sample probes to reveal necessary phase equilibrium information. The following were studied utilizing the above technique: (i) Activities in CU2S-PbS and FeS-PbS binaries and CU2S-FeS- PbS ternary at 1200°C; (ii) Activities in Cu2S-SnS and FeS-SnS binaries and Cu2S-FeS-SnS ternary at I200°C; (iii) Phase equilibria and thermodynamic in Cu-Pb-S, Fe-Pb-S, Fe-Sn-S, Cu-Sn-S and Ag-Sn-S systems. Most recently the following systems have been tackled: (i) Phase equilibria and thermodynamics in the Ag-Pb-S and Sn-Pb-S systems; and (ii) Activities in Ag2S-FeS-CuzS-PbS quaternary at 1200°C.

Jan 1, 2003

By Houyuan Liu

A new process was developed to recover nickel and cobalt by leaching laterite ore at atmospheric pressure and.95"-105" C. The nickel-containing goethite in limonite was first leached with sulphuric acid to liberate over 90% of nickel, cobalt and iron. The dissolved iron was then precipitated as Ni-free goethite by the additioil of saprolite. The acid released during iron precipitation as goethite was simultaneously used as lixiviant to leach saprolite to recover more nickel. With this process the limonite and saprolite were essentially converted into goethite-, gypsum- and silica- containing tailings. Twenty bench scale tests and two campaigns of pilot plant operation were carried out at BHP Billiton's Newcastle Technology Centre (NTC) from January to August 2002. The overall nickel and cobalt extractions were 81 to 90% and 91 to 100% respectively. The average plant availability was 99%. The advantages of this process over existing processes include high plant availability, high consistency, robustness and simplicity of the operation.

Jan 1, 2004

By V. P. Keran

The lead and copper smelting processes employed by Mount Isa Mines Limited, Mount Isa, Australia, are used to illustrate an operating viewpoint of some problems and solutions encountered in existing commercial sulphide smelters. The smelting processes discussed; include updraught sintering, blast furnace and reverberatory smelting, and converting. Selected examples are given of methods implemented, and options available, to improve the productivity and efficiency of conventional smelting processes.

Jan 1, 1983

By Mariane Costalonga de Aguiar, Carlos Mauricio Fontes Vieira, Sergio Neves Monteiro

"This work evaluates the effect of incorporation of an ornamental rock waste into an industrial clayey body used for roofing tiles fabrication. Formulations with 0, 10, 20 and 30 wt.% of waste were prepared by replacing the sand in the industrial clayey body. The plasticity of the formulations was determined by the Atterberg limits. Specimens were fabricated by 18 MPa press-molding and then fired from 850, 950 and 1050°C. The specimens were tested to determine the water absorption, linear shrinkage and three points bending flexural strength. The results indicated that the waste improves the extrusion performance of the clayey body by decreasing its plasticity. The use of the waste was beneficial to the water absorption and mechanical strength of the fired clayey ceramic at 1050°C.IntroductionOrnamental rock is a natural resource available in the municipal area of Santo Antonio de Padua and located 150 km from the city of Campos dos Goytacazes, northe of state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Intense industrial activity related to ornamental stones, especially gneisses, is traditionally occurring in the region. After mining, the flagstone is submitted to sawing to obtain blocks and then, after a manual operation, the final products are small flagstones [1,2]. During the sawing operation, a sludge composed of water and fine particles of rock is generated. A monthly production of 1000 tons of ornamental rock waste is estimated to be produced at Santo Antonio de Padua. The final disposal of this waste has brought serious environmental problems. Since most industries do not have an adequate sludge treatment, the waste is contaminating the soil and underground waters as well as obstructing rivers and lakes.Ceramic bodies industrially fabricated in the municipal area of Campos dos Goytacazes, 280 km from the city of Rio de Janeiro, are still empirically elaborated using a mixture of local clays. These clays are predominantly kaolinitic mineral, associated with high plasticity. Due to the excessive plasticity of the ceramic bodies, it is common to have dimensional defects in the final products after the drying and firing processes. Moreover, the kaolinitic structure and the presence of aluminum hydroxide confer a refractory behavior to the local clays. This impairs sintering during the firing operation. In the case of clay ceramics for civil construction, this results in greater porosity associated with elevated values of water absorption [3,4]. To avoid this problem, it is necessary to reformulate the ceramic body composition. The addition of both non-plastic materials to reduce plasticity and fluxes to condition the refractoriness is a possible alternative."

Jan 1, 2011

By Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Diogo Neves Henriques

"This work evaluates the effect of incorporation of an ornamental rock waste into an industrial clayey body used for roofing tiles fabrication. Formulations with 0, 10, 20 and 30 wt.% of waste were prepared by replacing the sand in the industrial clayey body. The plasticity of the formulations was determined by the Atterberg limits. Specimens were fabricated by 18 MPa press-molding and then fired from 850 to 1100oC. The specimens were tested to determine the water absorption, linear shrinkage and three points bending flexural strength. The results indicated that the waste improves the extrusion performance of the clayey body by decreasing its plasticity. The use of the waste was beneficial to the water absorption and mechanical strength of the fired clayey ceramic at temperatures above 1000 ° C.IntroductionOrnamental rock is a natural resource available in the municipal area of Santo Antônio de Pádua and located 150 km from the city of Campos dos Goytacazes, northe of state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Intense industrial activity related to ornamental stones, especially gneisses, is traditionally occurring in the region. After mining, the flagstone is submitted to sawing to obtain blocks and then, after a manual operation, the final products are small flagstones [1,2]. During the sawing operation, a sludge composed of water and fine particles of rock is generated. A monthly production of 1000 tons of ornamental rock waste is estimated to be produced at Santo Antônio de Pádua. The final disposal of this waste has brought serious environmental problems. Since most industries do not have an adequate sludge treatment, the waste is contaminating the soil and underground waters as well as obstructing rivers and lakes.Ceramic bodies industrially fabricated in the municipal area of Campos dos Goytacazes, 280 km from the city of Rio de Janeiro, are still empirically elaborated using a mixture of local clays. These clays are predominantly kaolinitic mineral, associated with high plasticity. Due to the excessive plasticity of the ceramic bodies, it is common to have dimensional defects in the final products after the drying and firing processes. Moreover, the kaolinitic structure and the presence of aluminum hydroxide confer a refractory behavior to the local clays. This impairs sintering during the firing operation. In the case of clay ceramics for civil construction, this results in greater porosity associated with elevated values of water absorption and low mechanical strength [3,4]. To avoid these problems, it is necessary to reformulate the ceramic body composition. The addition of both non-plastic materials to reduce plasticity and fluxes to condition the refractoriness is a possible alternative."

Jan 1, 2008

By Dale W. Collins

The disposal of arsenic from copper operations possess various health, environmental and processing problems. There are basically two areas of concern. The first being the disposal or treatment of smelter flue dusts and the second the removal of arsenic from refinery electrolytes. A number of treatment options have been proposed including the addition of soluble arsenic wastes to copper heap and dump leaching solutions. This approach will allow arsenic to be reintroduced to the ore via Solvent Extraction (SX) raffinate associated with hydrometallurgical operations. Knowledge of the attenuation behavior and mechanism during leaching is important in determining the long term stability of arsenic and the success of this approach. Parameters, such as uptake capacity, pH, particle size and solution chemistry have been investigated. Arsenic attenuation has been examined using column leaching with experiments employing both continuous flow and pulsed additions of As(V). In the initial stages of leaching, the attenuation of arsenic appears to depend on the pH and iron concentration in the effluent. Arsenic stability in the copper oxide ore has been examined with rinses of progressively lower pH.

Jan 1, 1994

By Qing-Yun Huang, Xiao-Yi Zeng, Bing Xie, Hong-Yi Li, Jia-Rong Yan

"In order to utilize vanadium resource in vanadium-titanium magnetite ore efficiently, vanadium distribution ratio between hot metal and slag should be improved during BF process, meanwhile the precipitating of Ti(C,N) in slag must be minimized. Effects of temperature, Ti02 content in the slag and basicity on vanadium distribution between slag and hot metal were investigated by experiment and thermodynamic calculation. The results indicated that high temperature, low Ti02 content and high binary basicity of slag were beneficial to increase the vanadium distribution ratio. The effects of temperature and Ti02 content in slag on vanadium distribution were stronger than that of slag basicity.IntroductionVanadium is an important element that is widely used in industrial fields. Most of vanadium resource is hosted in vanadium bearing titanomagnetite [l]. Vanadium bearing titanomagnetite is thus one of the domainate raw materials to produce the vanadium products. In other words, the comprehensive utilization of vanadium bearing titanomagnetite is beneficial for vanadium resource utilization. Vanadium bearing titanomagnetite sources are abundant in Pan Xi of China [4]."

Jan 1, 2013

By Sheng Dai, Yuan Lee, Haiming Xiao, J. P. Young

"There are numerous analytical applications of scatter-emission and/or absorption spectroscopy applied to liquids and solids in the temperature range of 0 to 350°C. In this paper an all-silica fiberoptic probe is described which is useful for spectral analyses from 0 to 1600 K and can be used in harsh chemical environments. The probe has been used for Raman spectral analyses of many molten salt and solid material systems to 1000°C. It has applications for such studies at higher temperature ranges. The instrumentation required along with the demonstrated and proposed applications of the all-silica probe are presented and discussed.IntroductionThere are many kinds of scatter-emission spectroscopies that are of value for analytical measurements. Fluorescence, reflectance, arc or spark emission are descriptors for some of these. Raman scatter spectroscopy is also quite a useful technique for analytical measurements.In Figure 1, we give a simplified explanation of the Raman effect. If one shines monochromatic light into a sample, light may be absorbed, exciting the sample to some virtual state. We know from experience that almost all of the light is re-emitted in the same wavelength range. This is called Rayleigh or Mei scattering and is designated in the figure by the arrows in both examples that point up and down from the same lower energy state. A very small percentage (the order of 10-4%) of the monochromatic light is re-emitted leaving the sample at a vibrationally-excited state. Thus, this light is at a distinctly lower energy compared to the exciting radiation. This is called a Stokes shift and is represented in the left-hand example by an arrow descending to a more energetic vibrational state. If the sample is not at a temperature of absolute zero, some of this vibrationally excited state will be thermally populated. That portion of the sample still absorbs and re-emits exciting radiation as Rayleigh scattered light, but a small percentage of the exciting light is re-emitted as the sample relaxes to the lower vibrational state. The energy of this light is of higher energy and is called an anti-Stokes shift, depicted in the example to the right. Notice that the energy separation of the Stokes or anti-Stokes shifted emission from that of the exciting radiation is the same, and expressed in ~cm-I. The intensity of either shifted emission is a function of the population of the vibrational energy states; therefore, the ratio of the intensity of Stokes to anti-Stokes signal varies with absolute temperature. We will come back to this point later."

Jan 1, 1997

By Yong Hack Lee

Nonferrous smelting processes have been through a rapid transformation since the beginning of 1980. The copper smelting technology has changed from the conventional Blast Furnace process to the Flash Smelting and MIB process. In the field of lead smelting, the technology has changed from the Blast Furnace Smelting to the Direct Smelting such as QSL and KIVCET. In 1992, Onsan Refinery successfully commissioned Direct Smelting QSL technology for lead. The QSL could produce more than 160,000 ton per year of lead bullion from lead concentrate and various residues. Moreover, since the year 2000, the TSL (Top Submerged Lance) Technology utilizing the same Direct Smelting process has been successfully commissioned to treat lead concentrate as well as lead sulfate residue produced from a hydrometallurgical zinc plant. This paper presents and compares the energy flows of lead smelting processes such as a conventional process and the Direct Smelting Processes plotted on the Pb-O-S phase diagram. The oxygen potential diagram suggests how to control the oxygen potential in the fum ace. Also, it describes the recent operational experience in the TSL plant of Onsan Refinery with necessary mass balance of key elements.

Jan 1, 2003

By Ravi Vancheeswaran

The consolidation of ceramic fiber reinforced metal matrix composites is a key process step in the synthesis of high performance composite systems. A simulation tool has recently been developed for predicting the evolution of the composites internal state microstructural variables (eg. relative density, fiber microbendinglfracture, and chemical reaction layer thickness at the fiber-matrix interface) during the consolidation processing of spray deposited composite mono-tapes. A Generalized Predictive Control (GPC) scheme is used in conjunction with the simula-tion tool to design near optimal process paths that minimize fiber damage and reaction product thickness while simultaneously maximizing the composites relative density. The microstruc-tural evolution depends nonlinearly on the process conditions and therefore the scheme uses a constantly updated linearization of the model to optimize the input process variable vector. A control simulation is presented to illustrate the performance of the design scheme and to assess the feasibility of its use for the achievement of goal state microstructures at the completion of consolidation cycles.

Jan 1, 1996

By Rubén Alvarado

The markets and environmental protection rules are more and more exacting, both of which have determined that copper smelters should look for technological development and global management to ensure their viability and competitivity in the short and long term. The main facilities of the present and future Smelting-Converting Process at Codelco's Caletones Smelter, is based on Teniente Converter reactors with a high operational availability that have reached concentrate processing capacities near 2,000 tpd. These reactors are in operation in most of the smelters in Chile as well as in Zambia, Peru, Mexico and, in ?the near future, in Thailand. Since 1993, the Smelting-Converting process of the Caletones Smelter of Codelco-Chile has been based on one Reverberatory furnace, two Teniente Converters and four Peirce-Smith Converters. These facilities, together with the operation of two Fluidized Bed Dryers, three Slag Cleaning Furnaces, and two Oxygen Plants have allowed the smelter to reach concentrate smelting capacities and copper productions of 1,215 kt/year and 360 kt/year, respectively. This transitional operating scheme, combining together traditional and advanced technological equipment, needs further modernization to successfully face the modern world challenges, especially with relation to the environmental commitment, production costs and wide satisfaction of customers. For this reason, for the period 1997-2000, a Modernization Plan has been worked out. This plan considers an increase of the present throughput, which will permit a significant increase in productivity, as well as finding a definitive solution for meeting the environmental regulations. Among these projects, we can point out the definitive shut down of the Reverberatory Furnace, which is a contaminating piece of equipment of low energetic efficiency. Additionally, it considers the installation of two new Slag Cleaning Furnaces, one additional Oxygen Plant, and the incorporation of two new Sulphuric Acid Plants with a production capacity of 4,500 T/D, that will recover over 92% of the sulphur content, of process off-gases.

Jan 1, 1998

By P. F. Stratton, M Huggahalli, N Saxena

"Several studies have been carried out to determine how the optimum atmosphere conditions in the heat treatment of metals can be established for a given product by using different gas injectors and varying atmosphere flow rate and composition. The most common approach taken to gain insight into furnace atmospheres has been to use commercial computational fluid dynamics codes and examples of their use are shown. However, the complexity of these codes, the difficulty in establishing boundary conditions, their cost and computational demands limit their usability in solving day-to-day production problems.A simplified, web-based model of a furnace atmosphere is described where the conservation equations are solved to determine the composition profiles of the atmosphere in the furnace. Although the model is restricted in scope to certain types of furnace, it is shown to give better results than CFD when boundary conditions are uncertain. The application of the model to the understanding of existing furnace conditions and to determining ways of optimising the use of gases are discussed. IntroductionThe important role of protective atmospheres during heat treatment of metals, furnace brazing of assemblies and soldering of printed circuit boards is well established. The atmosphere in the furnace prevents air ingress and oxidation of the parts, helps flush away any flux or binder from braze and solder pastes and provides an important mode of heat transfer [1]. In a batch furnace having typically one or two gas injectors, the gas utilisation and process can be optimised by minimising air leaks and mantaining atmosphere homogeneity with fans or other atmosphere circulation techniques. In a continuous furnace, however, atmosphere optimisation is more difficult as furnace inlets and exits can also let in air. The atmosphere requirements of different stages of heat treatment, brazing or soldering vary [2]. Achieving these atmospheres in different sections of the open-ended furnace is a relatively complex task. Methods such as atmosphere zoning and the use of physical curtains and gas injectors have evolved with time, though it is hard to predict how effective these techniques will be for a given furnace and process. Experts in the field tend to rely on experience and rules-of-thumb rather than scientific method to achieve the required results."

Jan 1, 2001

By Florian Kongoli

Converters have been playing an important role in the extraction and processing of metals ever since the first type of converter was invented about 100 years ago. Historically their operation has been mainly based on the experience of talented operators rather than on strict control and optimization technologies. However, in the new realities of unavoidable necessity to increase productivity and in the conditions of diversification of primary materials from various geographical areas, improving control and optimization techniques have become indispensable. In this paper a review of the authors? previous work in terms of improving control and optimization of converter operational practices related to magnetite content and precipitation, slag and metal blows, problematic and dangerous elements such as As, Sb etc. has been described by highlighting the advantages that the new control and optimization methods and tools bring to everyday converter practices. Several examples are given and future work is underlined

Jan 1, 2005

By Yanlong Li, Lifeng Zhang, Ying Ren

In this work, a multiphase mathematical model for the fluid flow in argon-stirred steel ladles was established and validated by experimental measurement of wood's metal. Alloy dispersion in the molten steel was calculated. The melting and mixing of alloy was faster with smaller size of the alloy particles, larger superheat and bigger slip velocity. The current mixing time is approximately 300 s with 30 mm alloy diameter and 91.5 K superheat.

Jan 1, 2014

By C. J. Newman

Prior to 1995, the smelting process at the Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation (KUCC) smelter consisted of Noranda reactors and Pierce-Smith converters. In the consideration of expansion opportunities, the existing process did not lend itself to a program geared towards processing the total output of KUCC mining and milling operations. During 1989 and 1990, a number of smelting options were evaluated. The final selection was the Outokumpu flash smelting process, coupled with the new Kennecott-Outokumpu flash converting technology. Facilities were designed and installed to process 1:0 million tonnes per year of copper concentrate, with the ability to expand to 1.2 million tonnes per year. Following the shutdown of the smelter facility utilizing the Noranda technology in May 1995, the flash smelting, furnace commenced operation in June with the flash converting furnace startup following a few weeks later. The smelter has achieved design production targets and environmental goals. Current operating rates are at or above design rates for concentrate and matte processing. Emissions are lower than the permit levels and equate to less than 3.5 kg of SO2 per tonne of copper. This paper outlines the design, construction, startup and the first two years of operation of the modernized KUCC smelter.

Jan 1, 1998

By R. Hammen

Processes are needed to rapidly and cost-effectively produce highly pure lithium salts for the rechargeable battery sector. Lithium purification is a chemical engineering challenge, due to the low concentration of lithium compared to sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and transition metal ions commonly occurring in lithium brine resources. We describe a Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) process that rejects sodium and potassium, while binding lithium and other higher valent ions. Lithium is then harvested by selective displacement from the SPE column. The rapid equilibration kinetics of SPE composites enables these ion separations to occur in a small SPE column and in one column stage. The chemical parameters of the process are described.

By Chao Li, Qian Li, Yong-bin Yang, Kai Li, Qiang Xie, Yuan-yuan Zhu, Dong-ye Li, Qi-bing Tan

"The permeability of sintering mix is a vital technological property in sintering process. However, it can only be measured by off-line method on samples picked from the production. In order to acquire the properties of sintering mix accurately, on-line measuring of permeability is urgently required. Based on the reflection characteristics of bed permeability on pipe flowing parameters, a new method is presented in this paper for on-line measuring of sintering mix permeability. The measurement can be performed by blowing gas flow in the bed with the measuring pipe. Measuring results are obtained by picking the data on flowing rate and pressure in the pipe. The function of flowing rate to pressure may be certain for samples with the same permeability. Thus, the permeability was determined by contrasting this function to the result of off-line measuring, and the relative coefficient or R2 value was more than 99%.IntroductionThe permeability of sintering mix is a vital technological property in sintering process, which directly determines production and quality of sinter, or even determines whether the sinter production is carried out smoothly [1,3].The permeability have more obvious influence on vertical sintering speed, which is mainly related to air quantity passing through material bed. Under certain inducing capacity and negative pressure, the vertical sintering speed mainly depends on the permeability of sintering mix. Low permeability may make burning through point of sintering move back, and the sinter mix cannot be burnt through. High permeability may make burning through point of sintering move forward, improving production efficiency by increasing the speed of sintering machine [4] Good permeability means a small resistance of fan ,reduction of negative pressure of sintering machine, and full contact between air and sulfide, which can strengthen physical-chemical reaction during sintering process and increase desulphurization rate. In gas well through material layer process, gas-solid desulfurization reaction and gas-solid-liquid heat exchange are completed and hot gas through the combustion zone supplies the sintering process with heat. Finally uniform sintering of the material layer in height and width direction is achieved [5] While high permeability index leads to weak sinter strength, fast sintering speed, short residence time of high temperature region and little liquid phase. Moreover, liquid phase in the fast cooling process is too late to fully crystallize but forming glass phase which is harmful to sinter strength as well. Bad permeability means a big fan resistance and increase of negative pressure of sintering machine, which make the air pass through material layer difficultly. When air and mix contact difficultly, removal of sulfide reduces so that desulfurization is incomplete. Meanwhile, low caking efficiency, slow sintering speed and easily burnt sinter , reduce sinter output. Therefore appropriate permeability of sintering mix is the premise of stable burning through point and satisfactory sinter output and quality."

Jan 1, 2013

By M. C. Ruiz

In the present study, the size distribution, Fo(v), of organic drops produced in a continuous-mixing vessel has been determined experimentally for various conditions. The organic phase used was a 1: 1 mixture of a salicylaldoxime (LIX 860N-IC) and a ketoxime (LIX 64-IC) in an aliphatic diluent (Escaid 103). The aqueous phase was a copper sulfate solution. The results indicated that an increase in stirring speed, extractant concentration, and pH produced smaller drops. The effect of the stirring speed was the most significant, decreasing the average volume of drops by 57 % for a change from 300 to 400 rpm. On the contrary, an increase in the dispersed phase fraction, copper sulfate concentration, and retention time produced larger drops. Changes in temperature from 23 to 30°C did not affect significantly the drop sizes. In all cases, the experimental drop size distributions could be accurately represented by a lognormal distribution.

Jan 1, 2001