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By Jean-Pierre Birat, Ana-Maria Iosif, Denis Ablitzer, Olivier Mirgaux

"Integrating environmental considerations into the product traditional process design is now the major challenge for steel industry. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is nowadays considered as an appropriate method for assessing environmental impact and selecting new technologies to reduce CO2 emissions for steel industry.In this paper we propose a new methodological concept which combines LCA thinking with process simulation software in order to carry out the life cycle inventory of classical steelmaking process.Using Aspen PlusTM software, a physicochemical model has been developed for the integrated steelmaking route. This model gives the possibility to carry out life cycle inventories for different operational practices in order to optimise the use of energy, to calculate CO2 and other emissions and to control the mass and the heat balances of processes.It is also shown that such approach can be used to design and assess new technologies for steelmaking without large industrial application.IntroductionDuring recent years, it was recognised that CO2 emissions are the major factor of the global warming effect. In order to meet Kyoto requirements, the steel industry is embracing the challenge of sustainable development by improving its competitiveness and economic success while reducing its environmental impacts. Integrating environmental considerations into the traditional product design process, for powerful eco-efficiency, is now one of the major priorities for steelmakers.The European Steel Industry has measured up to this challenge by creating ULCOS (Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking) consortium that has taken up the mission to develop breakthrough steelmaking process with the potential to reduce CO2 emissions (Eurofer, 2005). In order to develop technologies to reduce emissions, it is necessary to assess the environmental impact of the classical steelmaking route (coke plant, sinter plant, blast furnace, basic oxygen furnace, continuous casting and hot rolling)."

Jan 1, 2009

By Isabel Lázaro

A detailed study has been undertaken into the electrochemistry of the leaching of chalcopyrite in acidic solutions containing ferric ions. Mixed potential measurements have shown that the maximum potential achievable on a chalcopyrite disk in a ferric sulfate medium lies within the so-called passive or prewave region in the anodic behavior of chalcopyrite. The very low current densities due to the anodic oxidation of chalcopyrite at potentials in the region of the mixed potential has made studies of the initial stages of dissolution difficult. However a careful rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE) study has enabled data to be obtained for the stoichiometry of the initial dissolution reaction to be obtained. Thus, in addition to the detection of soluble iron and copper as products in this potential region, a soluble sulfur species has also been detected. A comparison of the experimental with the expected collection efficiencies of the products on the ring has revealed that this soluble sulfur species is likely to be thiosulfate. The characteristic transient anodic behaviour of chalcopyrite in this potential region has been interpreted in terms of a rate limiting solid-state diffusion process. Thus, extrapolated rates based on reported measured solid-state diffusion coefficients for the mineral at elevated temperatures have been shown to be consistent with the potentiostatic current-time transients. Furthermore, comparative studies of the anodic characteristics of the copper sulfide minerals covellite and bornite has confirmed their greater reactivity in this potential region. The results of this investigation have been combined with a parallel study of the non-oxidative behaviour of chalcopyrite in order to derive a model for the dissolution process which is consistent with other published studies of the electrochemistry and dissolution of the mineral.

Jan 1, 2003

By Michael Sheedy

Recoflo® ion exchange technology utilizes fine mesh resin beads, a fully packed resin bed, and counter-current regeneration. These unique features help to improve exchange kinetics, reduce regenerant consumption, and increase the concentration of strip solutions. Commercially, Recoflo technology has been extensively used in the following areas: the separation of strong mineral acids from dissolved metal salts, the purification, removal and recycle of dissolved metals in the surface finishing industries, and the production of high purity water. In the mining and metallurgical industries Recoflo ion exchange systems have been installed to treat a copper refinery bleed stream at Falconbridge's Kidd Creek plant and to treat a nickel and cobalt bearing ammonium sulfate effluent stream at another primary metal producer's facility. In the first application an APU® Recoflo system is used to separate the sulfuric acid at 200g/L from the dissolved copper and nickel sulfate salts at 80 g/L. The absorbed sulfuric acid is recovered from the resin by elution with water and is then returned to the refinery electrolyte circuit. In the second application a chelating ion exchange resin is used to remove nickel and cobalt at 0.01 - 3.0 g/L from process streams containing 120 - 240 g/L ammonium sulfate. This Recoflo system has been designed to reduce the nickel and cobalt levels to 0.001 - 0.002 g/L while recovering cobalt and nickel at concentrations up to 30 g/L and 15 g/L respectively. Case studies for both these metallurgical applications and other Recoflo processes are presented in this paper.

Jan 1, 1998

Mount Isa Mines Limited (MIM) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) have, over the past 15 years, jointly developed the Isasmelt process. This process is based on the use of the Sirosmelt top-entry, submerged combustion lance, developed by the CSIRO in 1973. While the Isasmelt technology was first applied to lead smelting, it has more recently been adapted to smelt copper concentrate. A 15 t/h demonstration Copper Isasmelt plant was commissioned in MIM's Mount Isa copper smelter in April 1987. The success of the Copper Isasmelt demonstration plant, which smelted over 532,000 metric tons of copper concentrate, has led to the construction of two full-scale furnaces: a 104 t/h furnace in the Mount Isa copper smelter, and a 585,000 t/y (650,000 short t/y) furnace at the Cyprus Miami Mining Corporation smelter at Miami, Arizona. The commissioning of these furnaces commenced in August and June 1992, respectively. The MIM Copper Isasmelt furnace will raise the Mount Isa copper smelter's capacity to 265,000 t/y of copper. The plant includes several innovative features, including: Andritz pressure filters, a rotary holding furnace, and an Ahlstrom flux-flow boiler.

Jan 1, 1993

By G. C. Yao

Iron and silicon impurities can form needle and branch shape intermetallie compounds in molten aluminum when there is no manganese. It is difficult to separate them from molten aluminum by electromagnetic separation. The Fe-Si-AI and Fe-Al intermetallic compounds were transformed into Mn-Fe-Si-Al and Mn-Fe-Al compounds by the addition of manganese into molten aluminum. In molten aluminum the morphology of these intermetallic compound particles is lumpish and spherical. Migration resistance of these impurity particles is small, which is beneficial to separation. FeSiMnA4 and FeMnAI6 are paramagnetic. These impurity particles can be moved by magnetic force and can be separated from the molten aluminum.

Jan 1, 2003

By Rey B. Marquez

This paper introduces and outlines the implementation of Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) at Phelps Dodge Hidalgo Inc. By using a disciplined approach to the everyday maintenance functions, a proactive strategy is being developed which "raises the bar" for plant maintenance. The main objectives are: integration of Operations and Maintenance partnerships, transformation of maintenance practices from a reactive to proactive mode through the introduction of a progressive Predictive/Preventive Maintenance program (PDM/PM) paradigm changes, increased management support of maintenance functions, introduction of new indices and root cause analysis, updated; training, and definition of RCM components. RCM is the vehicle being utilized to reach the higher level of equipment availability and utilization. However, the ultimate goal is to venture beyond RCM and into the new frontier of Total Maintenance Management (TMM).

Jan 1, 1998

By Jae-Ho. Lee

For some electronic applications where a dispersed electrically-conductive particulate-phase is employed, the conductivity of the surface (or near-surface region) of the particles provides for the primary mechanism which determines its electrical conductivity. Particles of a less expensive material, which may have desirable thermal-expansion properties, when coated with silver offer a means of also obtaining desirable electrical properties and at low cost. The research conducted was focused primarily on the development of silver-coated tungsten particles for thick-film polymeric conductors. The ammoniacal electrolyte was formulated from silver-nitrate, glycine inhibitor and formaldehyde reductant. The reduction, and subsequent deposition, of silver occurred selectively on the surface of the tungsten particles. Coated particles were assessed by SEM imaging. The thickness of the silver coating was estimated to be approximately 100nm on the basis of a mass account and the coating being uniform. The electrical conductivity of a silver-coated tungsten-powder pellet was found to be similar to that of a silver-powder pellet, of identical geometry.

Jan 1, 1997

By J. Rajek

The novel multi-component, multi-particle, multi-phase precipitation model developed recently is used to predict the precipitation kinetics in complex 9-12% Cr steels investigated within the European COST 522 project. These steels are used for tubes, pipes, casings and rotors in USC (ultra super critical) steam power plants for the 21st century. In the computer simulations, the evolution of the precipitate microstructure is monitored over the entire production heat treatment starting with the casting process, including austenizing, several annealing treatments and in-service conditions. The main interest lies on the concurrent growth and coarsening interaction of different types of precipitates. Keywords: Precipitation kinetics, heat treatment, power plant steels, simulation

Jan 1, 2003

By Vladimir Lobanov, Vladimir Skorohodov, Andrew Evdokimov, Ural State Technical University 19, Boris Radionov

"The bulk of raw materials in metallurgy of secondary platinum metals are the wastes such as multilayered ceramic-metal systems, e.g. the spent catalysts of the chemical and petrochemical industry, automobile catalysts, etc. Due high chemical resistance of a ceramic basis the extraction of platinum metals by leaching even at very fine crushing is poor. The study of sorption leaching of platinum and a palladium from the spent automobile catalysts are carried out. The average content of PGM is 0.5%. A few methods of raw materials sampling were compared: 1) direct hydrometallurgical leaching of platinum metals from the fine-grained catalyst and atomic absorption analysis of the obtained solutions; 2) fusion to a metal or sulphidic collector of precious metals with the alloy analysis by direct spectrometry; 3) fusion with dissolution of a precious metals collector and atomic absorption analysis of PGM in solutions. Leaching allows detecting out no more than 90% of a palladium and 80% of platinum. Fusion to a collector gives the best results at the chemical ending. Researches on sorption leaching are executed. Under optimum conditions the extraction of platinum metals to concentrates is comparable with similar indicators of collector fusion.The large part of raw materials in metallurgy of secondary platinum metals are the multilayered or tridimensional ceramic-metal systems, in particular the spent catalysts of the chemical and petrochemical industry, automobile catalysts, ceramic-metal condensers, etc. The content of the sum of PGMs can be from hundreds grams per ton to several percent. For processing of such materials the hydrometallurgical methods of platinum metals leaching by various reagents are used commonly. High chemical resistance of the ceramic basis covering the metal particles causes low recovery even at very fine grinding. Other fundamentally different method of catalysts opening includes dissolution of the ceramic basis in the solutions of hydrofluoric acid and the subsequent recovery of platinum metals from insoluble residue. Application of this method is associated to use of corrosive medias and appropriate equipment. Fusion of the specified materials with collecting of PGM by copper, nickel or lead at the specialized enterprises provides higher extraction in semiproduct. At the same time, complexity and duration of the subsequent extraction of platinum metals concentrates causes high total cost per unit. Thereby this method is economically acceptable only for rather poor raw materials (no more than 0,1%). Undoubtedly, that the raw materials with the high content of PGM are reasonable to process by individual technology. In the present work the processing of some kinds of ceramic-metal raw materials, particularly automobile catalysts (neutralizers) with various collectors at the conditions of a target fusion are investigated."

Jan 1, 2008

By S. E. James

EAF dust has been listed as a "hazardous waste" due to the presence of lead and cadmium, and at times chromium. The 550,00 tpy production of . .EA]' dust, estimated for the United States alone, contains more than 10,000 tpy of lead and about 250 tpy of cadmium in addition to nearly 1'00,000 tpy zinc. Even though the listing of .EAF dust as a hazardous material stimulated extractive metallurgical work worldwide, process development efforts have focused only on the recycle of the potentially-valuable zinc units. However, the recycle of the lead and cadmium, while not lucrative, is the more critical effort. Horsehead Resource Development Company, Inc. (HRD), in conjunction with its sister company, Zinc Corporation of America (ZCA), has taken a unique approach to total recycle of the toxic heavy metals found in the EAF dust. Impure oxide, produced by either a Waelz kiln or FLAME REACTOR Process and containing the lead and cadmium, is calcined in a rotary kiln at Palmerton, Pennsylvania, to produce a refined zinc-rich intermediate for ZCA's electrothermic zinc plant at Monaca, Pennsylvania. During the calcining operation, lead and cadmium are concentrated in a fume product and shipped to ZCA's electrolytic plant at Bartlesville, Oklahoma. At Bartlesville, a new hydrometallurgical circuit has been constructed and the existing cadmium plant expanded. The combined facilities permit the total recovery of cadmium to refined metal and the lead to .a silver-rich intermediate, which is sold to lead smelters. In this paper the Waelzing, calcining and new leaching facilities will be described.

Jan 1, 1990

By John A. Thorpe, Gary R. Maxwell, Kirk M. Schall, Kenneth A. Brunk

"Gold ores containing oxide and some sulfide copper minerals incur significant cost penalties when leached with cyanide, because 4-5 moles of cyanide are consumed for each mole of leached copper. This equates to ~4 kg of NaCN per kg of leached copper. Total cost of excess NaCN consumption plus CN destruction can exceed $4.00 per tonne of ore. AuGMENT Technologies has patents pending on a process that can 1) economically recover 70-80% of the cyanide that is fed to a mill, 2) produce salable copper cathodes, and 3) reduce the need for a cyanide destruction facility. Standard equipment for resin processing and electrowinning are used to recover the cyanide and produce the copper cathodes. Steps have been taken to determine: 1) how to develop the resin kinetics, 2) how much savings are incurred at a mill site, 3) how the novel 'electro-elution' circuit achieves efficient operation.IntroductionWhen gold ores containing nuisance copper are leached with cyanide, a significant cost penalty is incurred because 4-5 moles of cyanide are consumed for each mole of copper that leaches. This is equivalent to the use of -4 kg of NaCN per kg of copper that leaches. The total cost of excess NaCN consumption plus cyanide destruction can exceed $4.00 per tonne of ore.AuGMENT Technologies has a patent pending on a process that can 1) economically recover 70-80% of the cyanide that is fed to a mill, 2) produce salable copper cathodes, and 3) reduce the need for a cyanide destruction facility. This ACCS (Au-.C.u-.C.N Solution) Process Technology involves the novel application of copper cyanide chemistry. Standard resin processing and electrowinning equipment are used to recover the cyanide and produce the copper cathodes."

Jan 1, 1997

By Okechukwu Anopuo, Gerhard Tober, Petra Maier

"In this study, an investigation on the microstructure of hot rolled steel S355J2+N was conducted to optimize process parameters of complex forming, which combines rolling and bending. The best sets of parameters are worked out based on homogeneous mechanical properties and microstructure within the varied deformation degree with maximum at <p = 1.14 on a 25 mm thick plates. Mechanical properties, especially of heavy plates, are strongly influenced by the local deformation degree, strain rate and temperature. Detailed microstructural analyses showed that the ferrite-pearlite band structure changes near the surface, while maintaining homogeneous microstructure within the deformed work piece. Surface decarburization was also observed and this leads to decrease in hardness. To minimize iron oxide formation which could lead to side cracking, reduction in exposure time to temperature was suggested. On the other hand, temperature reduction below a critical value would risk the accurate forming process.IntroductionThis work presents the preliminary results of research to develop a new complex deformation process of thick steel plates. Complexity is given because the forming process combines rolling to reduce thickness and profiling by bending. The work piece will experience a thickness reduction from 25mm to 8 mm and is double curved. To explain and understand forming of thick plates basics of sheet forming as well as massive forming need to be used. At the moment there is no forming process established to produce double curved plates including reducing thickness in one process step. Technologies nowadays consist of two process steps: flat rolling and pressing in shape. Due to good weldability and formability the final product will be made of steel S355J2+N. This low-carbon steel is well understood and has a low strengthening exponent, which is expected to keep the forming forces down. Reduction of thickness from 25 mm to 8 mm gives furthermore a high deformation degree. Thus, hot forming has to be applied. The determination of process parameters is the main aim of overall research project; temperatures above lOOO°C are expected. Flow curves in literature are given at various temperatures and strain rates [1]. However, experiments with data close to the industrial application are rarely found, especially at low strain rates and high deformation degrees. Pre-test were done by flat rolling, being aware that the influence of bending is eliminated. The microstructure evolution were characterised in relationship to material formability with special attention to grain size change and recrystallization. Representative samples should be selected from specific locations in the deformation zone according to the knowledge about the metal forming process [2]. Due to no further alloying elements in S355, no precipitation hardening is expected to take place during hot forming, which keeps the mechanisms simple and the concentration on the feasibility of the complex forming process is given."

Jan 1, 2012

By Richard D. Hagni

An enhanced Interest in pyrometallurgical dusts has recently emerged due to increased world-wide environmental concerns. Mineralogical study of dusts samples from lead sinter plants. lead smelters, and secondary steel mill electric arc furnaces has shown that they can be readily studied by reflected light microscopy. These dusts typically are composed of small particles sufficiently large that their mineralogical identification and characterization can be conducted under the reflecting light microscope. Scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectroscopic analysis (SEM-EDS) has been used to confirm optical identifications and chemical compositions. The sinter and blast furnace dusts at the Doe Run Smelter at Herculaneum, Missouri are commonly about 20-150 11m. They consist predominantly of galena, chalcopyrite, sinter. slag. coke. and particles. Dusts from remote sampling sites 112-1 mile from the lead smelter are composed of similar particles and abundant fine-grained particles, less than 10 um. of locally derived calcium-aluminum silicates. Electric arc furnace (EAF) dusts are mostly spherical and less than 10 11m. They consist predominantly of iron oxides (magnetite. franklinite. jacobsite and solid solutions of these spinels), zincite. and calcium-iron silicate glass, together with smaller amounts of hematite. sylvite. coke and metallic iron. Reflected light microscopy is rapid provides mineralogical data on individual grains within dust particles. and allows direct observations of textural intergrowths in pyrometallurgical dust particles.

Jan 1, 1991

By Suzzann Nordwick

Over the past decade, significant advances have been made in the development of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) technology to treat acid mine drainage (AMD). Bench-scale testing, field demonstrations, and engineered applications of SRBs for the treatment of AMD will be presented. Designs include an in situ bioreactor installed in the subsurface workings of the Lilly Orphan Boy Mine in 1994, the SRB bioreactors installed at the Calliope Mine from 1998 to 2001, the integrated biological reactors built at the Surething Mine in 2001, and the ongoing development of a replaceable cartridge system. SRB technology benefits include the reduction of dissolved metal ions to insoluble metal sulfides and the neutralization of the AMD resulting from the production of bicarbonate from the oxidation of organic nutrients. This paper will address engineering design criteria including the selection of organic media and system permeability and complete mitigation of AMD. Research was funded under Interagency Agreement No. DW899388-70-01-1 between the US EPA and the US DOE and was conducted by MSE Technology Applications, Inc., through the National Environmental Technology Laboratory (DOE Contract No. DE-AC22-96EW96405) at the Western Environmental Technology Office located in Butte, Montana.

Jan 1, 2003

By John Norton

"This presentation will cover the physical properties of waste heat recovery. It is a two part presentation. The first deals with actually recovering the heat with new state of the art heat exchangers and applying that heat to the furnace combustion and the second part will cover what other processes you can enhance with this ""free"" heat. It will also talk about converting it to steam, hot air or electricity to be used or sold back to the utility company. The economics of various schemes will be reviewed. A brief discussion on State and Federal grants and subsidies will be presented.IntroductionThere are large quantities of wasted heat in the usual aluminum melting process. And, there are several techniques for reducing and/or using some of that wasted heat as you have seen. Any technique that can make use of wasted heat is a form of recovery. This can range from simply preheating aluminum billets prior to melting, to more complicated processes like air-to-air heat exchangers using the boiling and condensing characteristics of special fluids in “heat pipes.” The objective of this type energy recovery process is to move the wasted heat from the hot and dirty exhaust gas stream into some useful process.Waste Heat Recovery in the Aluminum Melting Furnace.There are considerations, of course:1) What might the value be of the recovered energy?2) Can the recovered energy be used within the process? Within the plant? Or by theneighbors?3) What is the capital cost?4) Is the recovery process complicated?5) Will it take additional staff?6) Will it cause additional downtime on the melting line?7) Will the operations staff need to be licensed?Ideally, the process will be simple and inexpensive, the recovered energy will be very valuable, and the whole effort will cause little distraction to the aluminum melting process itself. These would be ideal."

Jan 1, 2011

By Sungdon Kim, Chuljoo Kim, Joonsoo Kim, Hosung Yoon

"This study was performed to establish the optimum leaching condition through the experiments for the oxidized roasting followed by leaching of fluorocarbonate rare earth mineral (bastnasite) using sulfuric acid, and to establish the optimum condition for the recovery of cerium by ion- sieve method from the leached solution of bastnasite. The optimum conditions for the sulfuric acid leaching by the oxidizing roasting of bastnasite concentrates are that the roasting temperature is 550 -600 °C, the roasting time is 2 hrs, the concentration of sulfuric acid is 6N, the leaching temperature is S0°C and the leaching time is 3 hrs. At this time, the leaching yield of total rare earth oxides in the leaching of bastnasite concentrates is about 91%. When cerium is recovered by ion-sieve method from the solution obtained by the sulfuric acid leaching of the roasted bastnasite, the optimum conditions are that the TREO(total rare earth oxide) of leached solution is below 70 g/l, the flow rate of leached solution is 9.6 ml/min and the ratio of height to diameter of resin packed in column is above 9. In these conditions, the recovery of cerium of yield 85% and purity 96% is possible.IntroductionThe rare earths are generally called to Lanthanides, which are totally 17 elements including Scandium of atomic number 21 and Yttrium of atomic number 39 in addition to 1 S elements from Lanthanum of atomic number 57 to Lutetium of atomic number 71. Since the separation to each element is very difficult because of their similar chemical properties, the rare earths were used as the mixed rare earths and the mischmetal without separating to each element. However, the high purity rare earths are recently produced commercially to each element so that they are used as the materials for high tech. industry such as electric and electronic materials, catalysts, optical materials, special alloy and 8Uperconductive materials, and their consumption is rapidly increasing. Therefore, the purpose of this study is firstly to prepare leached solution by using the series of process of the oxidation-roasting and leaching by sulfuric acid. Next, second purpose is the separation and recovery of cerium by ion-sieve method."

Jan 1, 1998

By Yasuhiko Ito

"This talk is concentrated on the topics of compound film formation on the substrate electrode by interdiffusion of substrate element and electrochemically deposited species and/or by direct electrochemical implantation of the component element of the film into the substrate. As a typical example, electrochemical implantation of nitrogen atom into Ti metal to form TiN surface film is described. Another example is the formation of various kinds of intermetallic compound films including Ni2Y, Ni2Dy and Pd3 Y by the electrochemical implantation of lanthanoid elements into transition metal electrodes. By combining these two methods, Sm-Fe-N ternary material film also could be formed. The principle and application of the ""electrochemical implantation"" are discussed in detail.IntroductionGenerally speaking, surface film formation by molten salt electrochemical process can be divided into the following three categories:(i) single element film formation on the electrode by electrodeposition,(ii) compound film formation on the electrode by electrocodepostion of more than two elements, and(iii) compound film formation on the substrate electrode by interdiffusion of substrate element and electrochemically deposited species and/or by direct electrochemical implantation of the component element of the film into the substrate.This talk is .concentrated on the topics of category (iii), especially on the electrochemical implantation. Typical example can be seen in the electrochemical implantation of nitrogen atom into Ti metal to form TiN surface film. Another example is the formation of various kinds of intermetallic compound films including Ni2 Y, Ni2Dy and Pd3 Y by the electrochemical implantation of lanthanoid elements into transition metal electrodes. By combining these two methods, Sm-Fe-N ternary material film also could be formed. The principle and application of the ""electrochemical implantation"" are discussed in detail with examples above as well as other experimental results also obtained very recently in the author's laboratory."

Jan 1, 2000

By S. Yuan

Oxygen ion conducting yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) tube was used to remove oxygen from molten Cu at 1373K. Outer surface of the tube was in contact with the melt and the inner surface containing a thin layer of porous Ni-ZrO2 cermet electrode was in contact with a reducing gas. The migration of oxygen species (O2-) from the Cu melt through the YSZ tube is accompanied by an equal and opposite flux of electrons maintaining electroneutrality. Without applying an external EMF, the fluxes are maximized by short circuiting the melt with the cermet electrode. For efficient oxygen removal, the YSZ tube must be thin, contact resistances should be negligible, and the electrodes must be porous and cover the entire electrolyte surface for charge transfer. This refining process is environmentally sound, can use reducing gases such as H2, CH4 and CO without running the risk of increasing H or C content of the melt.

Jan 1, 1993

By Vladimir I. Skorohodov

The technology for copper utilization from circuit boards etching is proposed. The technology is based on combination of electrochemical and sorption methods. The conditions of copper electroextraction from ammonia-chloride solutions with obtaining of cathode copper are defined. The stage of electrolysis is destined for copper recuperation from etching process. Due to the electrochemical processes are unacceptable for cathode precipitation of the copper from diluted solutions such as rinse waters, the concentration on the strong-based cationites are used. After filtration throw the sorption columns solution is directed to the stage of circuit boards washing. It allows organizing close loop water recirculation. After saturation. resin is &apos;regenerated by chloride ammonium solutions. Obtained eluate directed to the etching stage, Generally. the technology provides copper recuperation and minimize wastes amount.

Jan 1, 2001

By David R. Sadedin

The highly negative Gibbs free energies of hydrogen atom reactions suggest that refractory oxides such as titanium dioxide should be easily reduced by hydrogen atoms. These reactions appear to be most favourable at low temperatures; oxides should be reducible even at room temperature. Since hydrogen atoms are produced in plasmas containing hydrogen a number of investigators have used hydrogen plasmas of various sorts to test these possibilities for reducing refractory oxides, in particular TiO2. None of these attempts has succeeded, a small degree of reduction being achieved in only a thin layer near the surface. A deeper consideration shows that several factors complicate the reactions expected on the basis of the negative Gibbs free energy. One factor is that the back reaction by water molecules produces molecular hydrogen, not hydrogen atoms, and the metal atoms that have been reduced may be immediately re-oxidised. In plasmas there are complications due to diffusion, thermal and charge boundary layers and charged particle reactions. Interpreting the results of hydrogen atom reactions is difficult. Hydrogen is not detectable by electron dispersive spectroscopy and amorphous products are not determinable by x-ray diffraction. Another consideration is economics. The cost of producing hydrogen atoms has a large bearing on the metals for which hydrogen atom reduction may be competitive. In this paper these factors are discussed, some necessary basic studies are highlighted and the general principles of a laboratory reactor are given, together with the results of tests using ZnFe2O4, ZnO and TiO2 as test oxides.

Jan 1, 2006