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By A. C. Fieldner, F. H. Gibson, W. A. Selvig

A foRmer paper1 described in detail various methods of calculating coal analyses to obtain the composition and calorific value of the pure coal substance—that is, of the coal free from its mineral matter. The paper included a table showing calorific values of pure coal, as calculated from float-and-sink portions, by means of the Parr formula for "unit coal" and by the customary moisture-free and ash-free formula. A modification of the Parr formula was proposed, based on the assumption that one-half the sulfur present in Coal occurs as pyritic sulfur and one-half as organic sulfur. In the published discussion of the paper Cady gave a table of results on a large number of Illinois coals as obtained by the Parr formula and the proposed modification thereof. The results obtained by Cady indicate that the Parr formula applies better to Illinois coals than does the modified formula proposed by Fieldner and Selvig. The present paper gives results obtained by applying the modified Parr formula to the analyses of the float-and-sink portions of the coals shown in the former paper, and results obtained by applying the Parr formula, the modified Parr formula, and the simple moisture-free and ash-free formula to various coals of the United States ranging in sulfur content from less than 1 per cent to more than 4 per cent sulfur. A graphic method of estimating the calorific value of pure coal and determining the relation of the coal ash to the mineral matter of coal, as proposed by Stansfield and Sutherland,2 was applied to a number of coals, and the results are given herein. Testing Formulas with Float-and-sink Separations The former paper by Fieldner and Selvig gave heat values of pure coal of the float-and-sink portions of 21 coals, as calculated by the Parr formula

Jan 1, 1932

By T. M. Geffen, J. L. Sanderlin, F. F. Craig, D. W. Moore

Scaled reservoir models have been used to study the effect of gravity on oil recovery performance in frontal-drive operations; namely, water, gas, or solvent flooding. The difference in density between the reservoir oil and the injected fluid causes their segregation, resulting in a non-uniform advance of the fluid front. In the laboratory flow tests, which simulated both five-spot and linear injection operations in flat reservoirs, the viscous, capillary, and gravity forces present in these operations were scaled. Dyed fluids were used so that the gross movement of the injected fluid could be observed. The studies covered a range of injection rates, formation thicknesses, and rock and fluid properties normally encountered in field operations. The results of the model tests indicate that the volume of the reservoir contacted by the injected fluid at its breakthrough into the producing well is less than that expected based on information which neglects gravity effects. This difference can often be as much as 80 per cent by gas or water injection in uniform sand bodies. Preliminary flow tests on a non-uniform sand body indicate that the uniformity of the flood fronts may in some situations be influenced to a much greater degree by permeability variations within the rock body than by gravity effects. The magnitude of fluid segregation due to gravity is controlled by the average injection rate, rather than day to day or week to week variations. INTRODUCTION One of the important factors controlling the oil recovery from a frontal-drive operation, such as water, gas, or solvent injection, is the volumetric sweep efficiency. This factor is a measure of the gross portion of the reservoir that is contacted by the displacing fluid. The volumetric sweep efficiency is influenced by gravity effects, well arrangements, and variations in rock permeability within the reservoir. The gravity effects are due to the displacing fluid being of different density than the reservoir oil. This causes the displacing fluid to move preferentially toward either the top or bottom of the formation. Non-uniform advance of the flood front can be caused by the relative positions of the injection and production wells. Variations in rock permeability also result in an uneven advance of the displacing fluid. Gas zones, representing paths of low resistance, may result in non-uniform movement of the injected fluid. The more uneven the advance of the displacing fluid, the lower is the volumetric sweep efficiency and thus the lower the oil recovery efficiency. The effects of well arrangement and permeability variations, upon the gross movement of the injected fluid have been the subjects of extensive investiga-ti0ns.1,2,3,4,5,6 Gravity effects have been recognized as being present in frontal-drive operations'.' but there has been little quantitative measure of their magnitude. Very likely the reason gravity effects have not been studied is that this problem does not lend itself to simple experimental or mathematical analysis. The development of reservoir modeling techniques has made possible a quantitative determination of the effect of gravity on fluid segregation and thus upon the oil recovery performance of frontal-drive operations. This paper presents a progress report on a laboratory investigation of gravity effects in fully liquid-saturated, horizontal, uniform as well as non-uniform systems. These results were obtained from scaled experiments on both linear and five-spot systems within the range of conditions normally encountered in secondary recovery operations. This study is concerned with the gross movement of the injected fluid to the time it first reaches the production wellbore. Therefore, it should be emphasized that the results of this paper can not be used to determine the effect of gravity segregation on oil recovery efficiency at abandonment conditions. MODEL SCALING The science of scaling models is relatively new as applied as petroleum production problems, Many of the scaling techniques have been adaptions of those used in basic studies of heat and fluid flow. There are

Jan 1, 1958

By A. C. Fieldner

A FORMER paper1 described in detail various methods of calculating coal analyses to obtain the composition and calorific value of the pure coal substance-that is, of the coal free from its mineral matter. The paper included a table showing calorific values of pure coal, as calculated from float-and-sink portions, by means of the Parr formula for "unit coal" and by the customary moisture-free and ash-free formula. A modification of the Parr formula was proposed, based on the assumption that one-half the sulfur present in coal occurs as pyritic sulfur and one-half as organic sulfur. In the published discussion of the paper Cady gave a table of results on a large number of Illinois coals as obtained by the Parr formula and the proposed modification thereof. The results obtained by Cady indicate that the Parr formula applies better to Illinois coals than does the modified formula proposed by Fieldner and Selvig. The present paper gives results obtained by applying the modified Parr formula to the analyses of the float-and-sink portions of the coals shown in the former paper, and results obtained by applying the Parr formula, the modified Parr formula, and the simple moisture-free and ash-free formula to various coals of the United States ranging in sulfur content from less than 1 per cent to more than 4 per cent sulfur. A graphic method of estimating the calorific value of pure coal and determin-ing the relation of the coal ash to the mineral matter of coal, as proposed by Stansfield and Sutherland,2 was applied to a number of coals, and the results are given herein.

Jan 1, 1932

Jan 1, 1881

By C. H. Li, R. J. Stokes

This paper compares the fracture behavior of tungsten rods in three conditions: recrystallized. recovered, and wrought. Notched specimens suhjected to a 50 in.-lb impact load showed ductile-brittle transitions at 700, 4.90°, and 440°C, respectinely. The recrystallized material had an equiaxed pain structure and jracbred by simple cleavage from a grain boundary source at all temperatures up to 700°C. The wrought and recovered material had an elongated fibrous structure and at low temperatures fractured by cleavage originating from the notch. As the transition temperature was approached cleavage was preceeded by more and more intergvanular splitting which deflected the crack front into planes parallel to the tensile axis. The enhanced toughness of wrought and recovered tungsten was attributed both to its inability to initiate cleavage because no pain boundaries were suitably oriented perpendicular to the tensile stress and to its inability to maintain cleavage because of intergranular splitting ahead of the crack. It has been appreciated for a long time in a qualitative manner that the room-temperature brittleness of fully recrystallized tungsten may be alleviated by working the material at relatively low temperatures.' More recently this difference in mechanical behavior between wrought and recrystallized tungsten has been examined quantitatively by measurement of the tensile properties as a function of temperature. In these experiments brittleness has been expressed in terms of ductility or reduction in cross-sectional area upon tensile fracture or in terms of the bend radius before fracture under bending.' This work has shown the existence of a fairly sharp transition from brittle to ductile behavior with an increase in temperature. The ductile-brittle transition temperature for recrystallized material is approximately 200°C higher than for wrought material. An increase in strain rate, small additions of impurity,' or an increase in grain size4 shift the respective transition temperatures to higher values, but the difference between them remains approximately the same at 200°C. A number of explanations for this embrittlement by recrystallization have been given. It has been blamed either on the concentration of impurity at the grain boundaries, the increase in grain size, or the change in texture which occurs upon recrystallization. The present paper examines the effect of different heat treatments on the notch-impact behavior of commercial powder-metallurgy tungsten rods. The change in the ductile-brittle transition temperature for this method of loading and the fracture mode has been related to the different mi-crostructures produced by heat treatment. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Commercial swaged powder-metallurgy tungsten rods 1-3/8 in. in length and 1/8 in. in diameter were machined to introduce a sharp V notch 0.030 in. deep. To change the microstructure from that of the as-received wrought material some of the specimens were subjected to an anneal in nitrogen either at 1300° or 1400°C for 8 hr or at 1600° or 2000°C for 1/2 hr. The notched rods were then placed in a miniature Charpy-type impact machine and struck at their midpoint (opposite the notch) with a hammer designed to deliver 50 in.-lbs of energy. The strain rate at the base of the notch was estimated to be approximately 100 sec-1 at the instant of impact. The specimens were heated in situ to the desired impact temperature. The microstructures produced by the various anneals were studied by both X-ray diffraction and metallographic techniques. Fig. 1 reproduces the microstructures observed metallographically following a 10-sec electroetch in a 10 pct KOH solution. Fig. l(a) shows the elongated fibrous grain structure of the as-received material. Following the anneal at 1300" or 1400°C the grain structure was still elongated as shown in Fig. l(b) but the etch pits delineated dense polygonized dislocation arrays within many of the grains. Occasionally a relatively dislocation-free recrystallized grain was found growing into the matrix. The anneals at 1600° and 2000°C resulted in complete recrystallization and some grain growth. The grains produced at 1600°C were still slightly elongated as shown in Fig. l(c) whereas the anneal at 2000°C produced equiaxed grains. The changes in grain size produced the expected changes in the X-ray back-reflection patterns; there was no indication either in the as-received material or the annealed material of any preferred orientation. RESULTS a) Impact Behavior. Fig. 2 reproduces the ductile-brittle transition curves measured in the manner described in the previous section. It can be seen that under these testing conditions the as-received

Jan 1, 1964

BUFFALO C E Moyer, Chairman (Buffalo, N Y ) R M Jordan, Vice-Chairman H A Morlock, Secretary CHICAGO M E Nickel, Chairman (Chicago, Ill) A M Kroner, Vice-Chairman W R McLain, Secretary-Treasurer

Jan 1, 1960

[NOTE.-The names of authors of papers are printed in small capitals, and the titles of papers, in italics. Casual notices, giving but little information, are indicated by bracketed page numbers. Large Roman numerals are volume numbers; small Roman numerals after volume numbers following titles indicate the page on which the presentation of the paper is mentioned; Arabic figures refer to the text of the printed papers.] A Use Classification of Coal, (ASHLEY) LXII [xiv]; LXIII, 782; Discussion: (HALL), 794; (ZERN) , 795; (ASHLEY), 795 Absorbent material, liquid-oxygen explosives, LXXI, 1251. Absorbents for liquid-oxygen explosives, LXIX, 292, 299. Absorption : cupellation : gold, special cupels, LIX, 194. primary and secondary, LIX, 213. ratio of silver to gold, LIX, 212. silver, specla1 cupels, LIX, 195. Absorption method, gasoline from natural gas, LIX, 584, 585. Absorptzon of Sulfur from Producer Gas zn Open-hearth Furnaces (NEAD), LXX, 176; Discussion: ( WATERHOUSE), 184 ; (REYNDERS) , 184; (KINNEY), 184 Accelerated wearing tests, bearing metals, LXIX, 973. Accident prevention, results, Utah, LXVIII, 360 Accident Prevention, 1919 (SINN), LXIII, [xiii] Accidents: causes in coal mines, LXXI, 1229. classification, Anaconda Copper Mining Co., LXVIII, 9. coal mining: comparison with metal mining, LXVIII, 360. pillar mining, LXVIII, 323. relation to method, LXVIII, 323 shafts, LXVIII, 207, 209 Utah, LXVIII, 363 - concentrating mills, Utah, LXVIII, 362 liquid-oxygen explosives, LXIX, 330, 339 losses through, LVIII, 65 metal mining, LXVIII, 361, 363. mine: causes, LIX, 652. curve of decrease, LIX, 655 days of greatest frequency, LIX, 657 human element as cause, LIX, 652, 653. intemperance as cause, LIX, 658 labor relation, LIX, 652 prevention, LIX, 653. record, New Jersey Zinc Co., Franklin mine, LIX, 655 time of greatest frequency, LIX, 657, 658 Utah, LXVIII, 360 prevention, LVIII, 65 report blanks, Anaconda Copper Mining Co, LXVIII, 13, 15. statistical base, Anaconda Copper Mining Co, LXVIII, 9 time lost, LVIII, 70 transportation, Clifton-Morenci district, LXX, 851.

Jan 1, 1926

By P. J. Shenon

ENROLLMENT in geological and mining engineering curricula is declining at an accelerated rate despite the greatest need for trained men ever extant in the minerals industry. Industrial and military demand is mounting, but the number of freshmen selecting the mineral field continues to fall. Estimates on the needs of industry range as high as 30,000 new engineers a year. The current deficit is more than 60,000 engineers less than the 350,000 to 450,000 which eventually will be needed. The indisputable fact is that the colleges are turning out fewer and fewer engineers despite the greatest enrollment in colleges and universities ever experienced in the United States. In 1950 a record 52,000 young men stepped out of the confines of ivy covered walls with engineering degrees in their hands. By 1951, however, the number dropped to 41,000 and present enrollment indicates a national graduating class of only 25,000 for 1952. No letup in the drop is forecast. About 19,000 can be looked for in 1953 and 1954 may reach an unhappy 12,000. It becomes clear that something must be done to attract high school graduates to engineering. One immediate possibility could be to make the course burden carried by the engineering student somewhat lighter. The prescribed curriculum in many schools is such that the student takes the path of least resistance, and instead of training for an engineering future, studies for a vocation which will allow him to learn and at the same time get at least a nominal enjoyment out of college life. Review geological and mining curricula of 20 colleges and it will be found that the engineering student is a veritable pack mule compared to a lad taking liberal arts or some other non-technical program of study. The curriculum for geological engineering at one school calls for 202 semester hr, with almost 23 hr carried per semester. Multiply this figure by three hr, the minimum supposedly to be devoted to a credit and you get 69 hr per week. With a bare minimum of 84 hr for sleeping and eating, about two hours a day remain for recreation. However, the load of other schools investigated is about 19 hr. The University of Utah requires 238 quarter hr for graduation with a degree in geological engineering, while requiring only 183 quarter hr for baccalaureate degree from University college, Utah's liberal arts school. It can be stated with a measure of surety that the same proportions exist in other universities. The first step would be for ECPD to review its requirements for mining and geological engineering. It must recognize that mining and geological engineers operate in a specialized field, as do other types of engineers. Although a geological engineer may not design a bridge, as pictured by the ECPD Committee on Engineering Schools, his field of design calls for similar engineering precision, a knowledge of materials, construction methods, economic considerations, and financing. Six schools have been accredited by the ECPD. What is the basis for approval and can the requirements be modified and still be kept in line with the needs of the geological engineer? Course work from school to school varies with the exception of mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Even in those courses the not inconsiderable variation lends dubious creditability to the mean. One accredited school requires 7 1/3 semester hr of chemistry, compared with 24 hr required by another, making an average for the six schools of 17 1 /3 hr. Required credit hr in mechanics ranges from 4 to 18 and in surveying from 2 to 15. Several non-accredited schools require more hr than do the accredited schools in some courses. Why is the engineering student forced to carry such a back-breaking load? The answer is of course fairly obvious. He is irrevocably set apart from the rest of the student body because of the nature of his life's work. He is training for a place in a world where technology is becoming increasingly involved. He must be prepared to do a job now-and not later. Mining and geological engineering require the same essential backgrounds as other engineers, and more. The "more" is a knowledge of mining methods, metallurgy and geology for the mining engineer. The geological engineer must know in addition, mineralogy, petrography, and geophysics. The load is compounded finally by the addition of liberal arts courses. Should anything be done to relieve the situation? Today's engineer must be a whole man, capable of handling the tools of communication and with an understanding of the economics of industry. He must be able to write clear simple English, and he must be man who can think from some other position than bent over a work table. He must be aware of the history of his country and to some extent that of the world. Not all schools share this view. Only two of the accredited schools require history courses. However, five of the non-accredited schools make it mandatory. Four accredited and five of the nonaccredited schools require economics. Courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry are fundamental in engineer training. The average for the accredited schools could serve as a guide in

Jan 1, 1952

By Dorsey Lyon

INTRODUCTION THE electric furnace has always been found to be especially adapted to melting, refining, and finishing processes throughout its gradual acceptance by metallurgists, as a practical apparatus for conducting metallurgical operations. In the steel industry, the electric furnace is firmly established in the manufacture of steel of the highest grade, equal to crucible steel. For the production of the cheaper grades of steel in large tonnage, the electric furnace gives a higher-grade product than the open-hearth or converter, but due to the high cost of power prevailing in steel centers, considered from the electric furnace standpoint, it is not economical to produce tonnage steel in the electric furnace. As a refining and finishing agent for open-hearth or Bessemer steel, the electric furnace has had some degree of success in the production of tonnage steel. After a study of the use of the electric furnace in the steel industry, it appears that there may be a possibility of its use to advantage for the melting of cathode copper. In the case of copper the problem is not one of actual refining, because the copper if refined properly y the electrolytic method needs no further refining; it needs simply to be cast into a marketable shape. The name" refining". is applied to the present finishing process, because in the operation oxygen and other impurities are removed, which the electrolytic copper absorbs in being melted in the reverberatory furnace. Considering that processes may be positive, negative, and neutral; the electrolytic method would be positive; reverberatory melting of cathode copper, negative; and electric furnace melting, neutral. The electrolytic method produces about as pure a copper as is possible, if operated properly and the anodes are not too impure. The final reverberatory melting of this cathode copper lowers the grade of the final product, due to the absorption of gases and impurities.

Jan 8, 1914

AARONS, J. BOYD, Major. AGNEW, FRANK VANS. ALLEN, HERMAN H., Private, D Co., 8th -Reserve Engineers. BAINS, THOMAS M., Major, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. BANKS, H. R., Lieutenant, Canadian Engineers, B. E. F. BARBOUR, PERCY E., Deputy Supt. (Captain), New York State Troopers; Captain, 22d Regiment, N. Y. N. G. BARLING, H. B., Ist Lieutenant', Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. BIGELOW, BRAXTON. BLOOMFIELD, E. C., Lieutenant. , BORROW, F. K. BROCK, R. W., Major, 19th Reserve Battalion of Canadians. BROOKS, ALFRED H., Captain, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. BROWNE, DE COURCY, 1st Lieutenant, Ordnance Dept., Fortress Monroe, Va.

Jan 9, 1917

By Robert Uhley, Tsvi Meidav, L. Scharon

Before National Lead built an industrial plant on its Fredricktown property, some 100 miles south of St. Louis, a 750x500-ft area on the proposed site was investigated by electrical resistivity, seismic refraction, and churn drilling. Data were accumulated to prepare an isopach map of the overburden and to determine soundness of the dolomite bedrock and the depth to bedrock at fixed points. The site was on a gently sloping hillside. Elevations above sea level ranged from 760 ft in the northwest corner to 820 ft along the eastern edge, giving a total relief of 60 ft. There were no major drainage features, but in the northern part of the plant site there was an indicated depression area which later was interpreted as reflecting subsurface conditions in the bedrock. No rock was exposed in the entire plant site area; the surface was characterized by soil and overburden. GEOLOGY Prevailing geology in the area of investigation was relatively simple—Bonneterre dolomite overlain by residuum. The red overburden was that derived from the weathered Bonneterre. Some chert was present, interpreted in the general area as a weathering of both the Bonneterre dolomite and younger sedimentary rocks such as the Potosi dolomite. During the period of actual measurements the residuum varied from moist near surface on the western edge of the proposed site to dry near surface on the eastern edge, and for this reason overburden resistivities ranged from low on the west to high on the east. Seismic velocities were low, since the material was not well packed. The bedrock encountered was dolomite, specifically the Bonneterre of Upper Cambrian age which, according to McQueen,' consists of an upper dark gray member and a lower light gray member. These have been further divided into four zones, in ascending sequence a dark gray, sandy argillaceous dolomite; a dark brown or black, fine-grained dolomite: a light gray, finely crystalline, compact dolomite; and, at the top, a dark brown, finely crystalline, compact dolomite. In the area of investigation the upper two zones were encountered in the drilling tests as constituting the bedrock. The dolomite varies widely in porosity, which is low in the dense, fine-grained layers. In this area, therefore, both electrical resistivities and seismic velocities were high. Fracture zones in the Bonneterre are nearly Geology, and may extend to some depth, causing considerable deep weathering. It was realized that over deep fracturing the apparent resistivities

Jan 1, 1960

By Eugene Coste

ALTHOUGH some of the observers who first paid especial attention to the occurrences of oil and gas in the strata (such as Hunt in 1859, Andrews in 1861, Winchell in 1865, Mendelejeff in 1876, Höfer in 1876, Minshall in 1881, and I. C. White in 1883) seem to have been impressed with the fact that oil and gas deposits were connected with the disturbances in the rocks caused by their upheaval,1 yet, with the exception of Mendelejeff, and possibly Andrews, these observers do not appear to have understood what is really the one essential factor in the occurrence of oil and gas in the strata: viz., the faulting, uplifting, fracturing, fissuring, and jointing always accompanying even slight rock disturbances, and in certain districts (petroliferous provinces)2 allowing solfataric hydrocarbon emanations to force their way up from the interior and to reach and impregnate the porous portions of sediments subjected to the disturbances. Instead of this simple explanation to account for the observed connection between petroleum deposits and rock disturbances, most of the observers mentioned above, and many others who have followed them on the name lines since, have entirely reversed the problem. To them, instead of the dissemination of gases from fissures into the sediments, it presented the accumulation and concentration, according to anticlinal or other geologic structures, of oil and gas originally present throughout the whole mass of the strata where they were produced by the decomposition or distillation of organic remains. Whether this important problem involves accumulation from sources within the oil-bearing strata themselves, or infiltration and dissemination from outside sources, may be easily determined if all preconceived ideas are put aside and the established facts only are considered.

Jan 9, 1914

Application of technology to the search for new deposits went on apace in 1963. Traditional methods, aided by modern communications, were successful in some out-of-the way corners of the world that had not been adequately prospected, but the co-ordination of several mutually supporting techniques is necessary to define exploration targets in most areas today. Although these obviously include geophysics and geochemistry, which are treated elsewhere in this issue, geology continues to play a major role. As the search focuses on less and less obvious targets there will be more need than ever to "pull out all the stops." Any anomaly may have significance and must be evaluated as a possible lead. Ability to detect them increases as the laboratory workers refine techniques for measuring physical, chemical, and isotopic properties; it will be increasingly the responsibility of the exploration geologist to understand and apply these to economic problems. Simple propecting, the search for outcrops of recognizable ores of traditional types, was perhaps most successful for iron. Potentially large deposits of high-grade magnetite-specularite-hematite ore have been found in the Mary River area near the north end of Baffin Island. The ore holds up four hills that stand some 1500 ft above the surrounding country; obviously they were ripe for discovery by the first person to come across them, in this case Murray Watts, president of British Ungava Explorations, Ltd, As preliminary examination indicates a lump ore averaging 68 to 70% iron, these deposits may be commercial in spite of the unfavorable climate and their isolation from world markets.

Jan 2, 1964

By C. S. Finney, John Mitchell

The growing popularity in the United States of the vertical-flue even was emphasized when in 1905 the United States Steel Corp. chose the Koppers oven as the type which best suited their requirements. Heinrich Koppers was born on November 23. 1872. at a small farm in Walbeck near Geldern on the lower Rhine. When young Koppers was eight years old, however the family moved away from the farm to the industrial city of Bochum in the Ruhr. Here Koppers attended public school and subsequently served an apprenticeship to a tinsmith before taking a job as a lathe operator with a local steel company. He had ambitions to be much more than a machinist, however, and used his week-ends and evenings to improve his theoretical background by taking courses at a vocational-training school in Bochum. After winning the highest honor the school could bestow (the silver Staats-medaille), Koppers went on to continue his education at the Rheinisch-Westfalische Hüttenschule in Duisberg. One of his teachers there, Fritz Wüst who later became a professor at the Technische Hochschule at Aachen, recognizing Koppers' unusual abilities, predicted for him a great future. In 1894 Heinrich Koppers joined the firm of Dr. C. Otto and Co. in Dahlhausen, and in 1899 while superintendent of the Mathias Stinnes mine he built his first battery of ovens for Hugo Stinnes, the German industrialist. Two years later he started his own organization, and in 1902 he made Essen his headquarters. It was to Essen that a group of engineers from the United States Steel Corp. went in 1906 with an invitation to Koppers to design and supervise the construction of four batteries of ovens at the Joliet works of the Illinois Steel Co. Each battery was to consist of 70 ovens. Arriving in the United States in 1907, Koppers established a branch of his firm in Joliet, and construction began. The first battery was fired on July 27, 1908. Rugged and simple, these ovens incorporated basic design features which were to make the Koppers oven and its future modifications the choice of a very large segment of the by-product coking industry of America. The 280 ovens at Joliet were 35 ft long, 8 ¾ ft in height, and tapered from 21 to 17 in. The total daily capacity of the four batteries was 2240 tons of coke. The ovens were of the new cross-regenerative type; that is, instead of longitudinal regenerators serving an entire battery, as in the older Koppers ovens, cross regenerators for each separate oven were employed. Fuel gas was supplied from the side of the battery through ducts in the brickwork known as gun flues, which reached to the center of the battery under the vertical heating-flues. Removable, ceramic gas-nozzles fitted at the top of each gun flue helped to insure good control over the distribution of the fuel gas, and uniform heating conditions were also promoted by regulating the air supply to, and the suction in, each heating flue. A different refractory w& used for each battery. One was built of American silica brick, one of American quartzite, and two of imported German quartzite. The installation at Joliet proved to be very successful, and in 1911, 490 additional' Koppers ovens were built for the Illinois Steel Co. at the great new steelworks at Gary, Ind. By 1912 the H. Koppers Co. had established its headquarters in Chicago and was rapidly extending its business to include construction for such iron and steel companies as the Woodward Iron Co. at Woodward, Ma. (80 ovens in 1912); the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Rail- road Co. at Fairfield, Ala. (280 ovens in 1912); the Inland Steel Co. at Indiana Harbor, Ind. (86 ovens during 1913 and 1914) ; and the Republic Iron and Steel Co. at Youngstown, Ohio (68 ovens in 1913). In 1914 a group of men in Pittsburgh bought a major shareholding in the H. Koppers Co., and moved the headquarters of the organization from Chicago to their own city. Under its new management the company was highly successful in obtaining a large share of the contracts for by-product installations built during World War I. In 1917 the remaining German interests in the company were

Jan 1, 1961

By W. A. Koehler, W. L. Eaton, Reynold Q. Shotts, M. E. Hinkle, M. R. Geer, Ralph M. Hunter, H. F. Yancey, Andrew B. Crichton, E. Zimmerman, S. H. Ash

R. Maize and H. P. Greenwald presiding) E. T. POWELL*-I would like to ask either Mr. Ash or Mr. Eaton if they know of any place where the Mine Inspectors' for¬mula has been used that water has flowed from one colliery to the other. W. L. EATON (authors' reply)-We have made considerable study but we have not gotten around to very many of the barrier pillars. I would not say that any or all of them have been designed to the strict figures of this formula. Most of those ex¬amined will not hold back the water that they are supposed to hold back. E. T. POWELL-If the pillar remains ac¬cording to the Mine Inspectors' formula? W. L. EATON-We have not found very many where the provisions were followed. E. T. POWELL-Where the Mine Inspec¬tors' formula has been fully complied with, have there been failures or not? W. L. EATON-I cannot say. Most of these barrier pillars probably were designed in accordance with this formula, but most of them, if they were so designed, are not in that shape now because a large number of them will not hold back the water; they have been reinforced, and they are punc¬tured in various places. Holes have been driven through them to relieve the hydro¬static pressure to avoid a failure. They do not dare to have a failure. In many instances, the barrier is punc¬tured to avoid a failure. In order to mine their coal safely, many companies must pump water from mines that were aban¬doned many years ago. R. MAIZE-That is true, Mr. Eaton, but do you know of any case where a barrier pillar actually failed and flooded an ad¬joining mine when the pillar had been left in accordance with the Mine Inspectors formula?

Jan 1, 1948

By L. L. Wyman

THE resultant embrittlement caused by the exposure of oxygen-bearing copper when hot and exposed to reducing gases has been the subject of many studies.1 Little attention, however, has been given to the possible embrittling effects due to atmospheres or conditions that under some circumstances might be the source of a reducing gas. At rather infrequent intervals there occur reports of copper becoming embrittled during normal annealing cycles in commercial steam-atmos-hered furnaces such as customarily are used for this operation. As might be expected, several other factors exist-such as oil, dirt on the wire, or in the furnace, or metallic surface contacts that might produce reducing gases and be the source of the trouble. However, in consider-ation of the statement made by Ruder,2 it would seem that under some conditions steam itself might prove to be the source of trouble. A consideration of the amount of the dissociation of water vapor up to temperatures of the melting point of copper shows that' the amount of hydrogen that could come from this source is far too minute to account for any embrittlement. What such information does not tell is what will happen at the surface of copper when subjected to steam at elevated temperatures, for entirely different conditions may persist, which would account for Ruder's observation. Furthermore, there are no data as to what might happen at the surfaces of other materials present, the result-ant of which might affect the condition of the copper present. For this reason, it was decided to make a series of experiments com-parable to those previously conducted by the writer,1 which would clarify the effect of the steam on copper, and in copper in the presence of steel.

Jan 1, 1940

By Nicholas J. Grant, Italo S. Servi

THE creep and stress rupture properties of three grades of aluminum have been reported in a previous paper.' It was found that the stress coefficient of the creep rate and of the rupture time changes at the transition from low temperature-type to high temperature-type deformation. The transition corresponds to the equicohesion for grains and grain boundaries. In order to support the conclusions obtained from the examination of creep and stress rupture data, the deformed specimens were observed metallographically and a few special tests were conducted. The results of these qualitative observations are given in the present paper. Experimental Procedure and Results Table I gives the types of aluminum specimens.' The creep and stress rupture tests were conducted in simple tension at constant stress. Further details on the experimental techniques have been given.' The test bars were electropolished in a perchloric-acetic mixture before testing and were observed after testing without any further preparation unless otherwise specified. Observations of specimen cross-sections were made after electrolytic polishing and etching. The samples were extended along a direction parallel to the longer side of the micrographs of Figs. 12 through 27. The log-log plots of stress vs. minimum creep rate for the three grades of aluminum appear in Figs. 1 and 2. The reference numbers on each curve help relate the photographs to the conditions of testing, indicating where high temperature-type deformation and failure prevailed and where low temperature behavior prevailed. Deformation of Single Crystals at Very High Temperature: An annealed, high purity aluminum specimen was slightly strained at one end and re-annealed. A large single crystal was formed at the strained end of the specimen during re-annealing; the other end remained polycrystalline (see Fig. 3). A stress of 50 psi was applied to the cold specimen to avoid loading at 1100°F. The temperature was then raised to 1100°F, kept at 1100°F for 3 hr, and lowered again to room temperature. Fig. 4 shows the appearance of the specimen after testing. The single crystal deformed by gliding along parallel planes, while the polycrystalline part deformed mainly by grain boundary flow. Some grain growth occurred in the polycrystalline part. Another high purity specimen, which had two large single crystals at the two ends and a polycrystalline zone in the middle portion, was tested at 1000 °F under a stress of 100 psi. The appearance of the sample after test is shown in Fig. 5. Even though considerable slip occurred in the single crystals, the fracture occurred in the weaker polycrystalline portion. Evidence of Grain Boundary Migration during Creep Testing: A high purity, coarse grained specimen, which had a large crystal in the middle portion (see Fig. 6) was tested at 700°F under a constant stress of 175 psi for 30 hr. The appearance of the specimen after testing (Fig. 7) indicates that the large crystal deformed by gliding along parallel planes, while the rest of the specimen deformed mainly by grain boundary flow. Microscopic examination showed clear evidence of grain boundary flow and grain boundary migration, an example of

Jan 1, 1952

By D. B. Jugle, J. B. Darby

The equilibrium solubility limits of the transition elements Ti, V, Cr, Fe, and Co in liquid tin were determined in the temperature range from 827" to 1211°K. Since the equilibrium concentration of Ti, V, or Cr in liquid tin is moderately dilute in the temperature range investigated, the solubility data were employed to estimate the partial molar enthalpy and the partial molar excess entropy of solution for the three solutes in liquid tin. The reference state s for titanium or vanadium were selected relative to the solute in an intermetallic compound. The thermodynamic quantities for chromium were calculated relative to pure chromium. RECENT experiments1 have shown that the rate of solution of several transition elements in liquid aluminum can be qualitatively predicted from a knowledge of the temperature dependence of the solvent-rich liquidus. In order to extend the analysis to binary tin systems,' it was necessary to know the equilibrium solubility of several of the first-long-period transition elements in liquid tin. Since solubility data for the tin-rich portion of binary systems are meager, the present investigation was undertaken to determine the equilibrium solubility limit of Ti, V, Cr, Fe, and Co in liquid tin in the temperature range from 850" to 1200°K. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A useful technique3 to determine the equilibrium solubility of a solute in a liquid-metal solvent consists essentially of placing a pure solute in contact with a pure solvent and allowing sufficient time for equilibrium to be attained at the temperature of interest. Subsequently, the solvent is removed and the equilibrium solute concentration in the solvent is determined by an appropriate analytical procedure. The technique can be applied very successfully to relatively simple systems such as the copper-germanium system.3 However, in many binary systems of transition elements with tin, several intermediate phases are known to exist and precipitation of the phases from solution, in solubility experiments, can lead to an erroneously large solubility. The difficulty was avoided in the present work by equilibration of the most solvent-rich intermediate phase with the pure solvent over a range of temperatures. The compounds employed in this investigation, and the temperature range over which each compound is in equilibrium with liquid tin are listed in Table I. No stable intermediate phases are reported in the chromium-tin system4 and, therefore, pure chromium was utilized as the solute. The stoichiometric compounds were prepared by arc-melting on a water-cooled copper hearth in a helium-argon atmosphere. The elemental tin employed in.this investigation was 99.998 pct pure, and typical lot analyses of the transition elements were reported elsewhere.' A sample of an appropriate solute, in the form of a button and in sufficient quantity to exceed the equilibrium solubility, and the pure tin solvent were placed in a high-purity recrystallized-alumina crucible. The crucible and contents were placed in a horizontal furnace under a high vacuum (10-6 torr) and held at temperature for periods varying between 24 and 72 hr. A water-cooled quench tank, partially filled with diffusion-pump oil, was attached close to one end of the

Jan 1, 1970

THE Institute assembled in the rooms of the Geographical Society, Cooper Union, at 8 o'clock P.M., February 24th, 1874. President Barnard, of Columbia College, delivered an address of welcome, to which President Raymond responded. The Council then presented the following names, duly indorsed for election as members and associates. The gentlemen named were unanimously elected. *Bullock, M. C., - New York. †Burke, M. D., - Cincinnati, Ohio. *Burt, M. W., -Wheeling, W. Va. †Cameron, J. G. M., - New York. *Canfleld, Frederick A., - Dover, N. J. *Chandler, Prof. C. F., - New York. *Clayton, J. E., - Salt Lake City. †Colton, C. A., - New York. *Cooke, Prof. George H., - New Brunswick, N. J. *Cooper, Edward, - New York. *Dahlgren, C. B., - Mazatlan, Mexico. †Dutton, Capt. C. E., - Washington, D. C. *Eurich, E. F., - New York. †Fuller, H. L., - Woodside, Luzerne County, Pa. †Hamilton, S. Jr., - New York †Harnickell, A., - New York. *Hearne, F. J., - Wheeling, W. Va. *Hill, Samuel W., - Marshall, Mich. *Hulbert, Edward J., - Houghton, Mich. *Hunt, R. W., - Troy, N. Y. †lhlseng, M., - New York. *Iselin, Henri, - New York. *Janney, Morris P., - Pottstown, Pa. *Jenney, Frank B., - Brooklyn, N. Y. *Jenney, Walter P., - Brooklyn, N. Y. †Joy, D. A., - New York. *King, Clarence, - New York. *Kittoe, E. F., - Charleston, S. C. †Lawrence, Robert,. - New York. *Locke, J. M., - Cincinnati, Ohio. *McCormick, Henry, - Harrisburg, Pa. * Members. † Associates.

Jan 1, 1874

The Institute assembled in the rooms of the Geographical Society, Cooper Union, at 8 o'clock P.M., February Nth, 1874. President Barnard, of Columbia College, delivered an address of Welcome, to which President Raymond responded. The Council then presented the following names, duly indorsed for election as members and associates. The gentlemen named were unanimously elected. *Bullock, M. C.,. ., . New York. Burke, M. D.,.... Cincinnati, Ohio. *Burt, M. W.,.....Wheeling, W. Va. Cameron, J. G. M.,. ..'New York. *Canfield, Frederick A,,. .. Dover, N. J. *Chandler, Prof. C. F.,. .. New York. *Clayton, J. E.,. .. . Salt Lake City. Colton, C. A,,.... New York. *Cooke, Prof. George H.,. . New Brunswick, N. J. *Cooper, Edward,.... New York. "Dahlgren, C. B.,.... Mazatlan, Mexico. Dutton, Capt. U. E.,. .. Washington, D. C. *Eurich, E. F.,.... New York. Fuller, H. L.,.... Woodside, Luzerne County, Pa. Hamilton, S. Jr.,.....New York: Harnickell, A,,.,.. New York. *Hearne, F. J.,. .. . Wheeling, W. Va. *Hill, Samuel W.,.... Marshall, Mich. *Hulbert, Edward J.,. . Houghton, Mich. *Hunt, R. W.,.....Troy, N. Y. Ihlseng, M.,.....New York. "Iselin, Henri,.... New York. *Janney, Morris P.,. ..Pottstown, Pa. "Jenney, Frank B.,. .. . Brooklyn, N. Y. *Jenney, Walter P.,... Brooklyn, N. Y. Joy, D. A.,.....New York. *King, Clarence,.... New York. *Kittoe, E. F.,....Charleston, S. C. Lawrence, Robert,.... New York. *Locke, J. M.,..... Cincinnati, Ohio. *McCormick, Henry,. .. Harrisburg, Pa.