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By D. L. Katz

The Oklahoma City Wilcox sand, discovered on March 26, 1930, has produced 394 million barrels of crude oil and 819 billion cubic feet of natural gas as of July I, 1941. The 100,000-bbl. wells, pressures of 2600 lb. per sq. in., and flows of "Wilcox" sand caused exciting moments in the early life of the field. Today the reservoir is substantially at atmospheric pressure and produccs 75,000 bbl. of crude oil daily through 466 pumping wells. Early estimates of the initial crude-oil content of the "Wilcox" sand1 indicated that about 600 million barrels of crude oil would remain after the pumping wells ceased to produce economically. The Oklahoma City Wilcox Secondary Recovery Association was organized in March 1939, to study the possibilities of recovering a portion of this oil. Only a very brief summary of the information available can be presented in a paper of this nature. Some simplifications and generalizations are necessary to give the over-all picture in SO short a space and statements made may not apply to a specific well or small area. Since the area under consideration by the Association is that north of the south line of section 22-11-3, some information will be presented for areas A, B, C, 1, 2, 3 and part of 4 of Fig. 2, and some will be for the entire Wilcox zone west of the fault. This paper is essentially an abstract of an engineering report made by A. D. Small, B. T. Murphree, M. C. Sons and the author for the Oklahoma City Wilcox Secondary Recovery Association on Sept. 5, 1940. Some information is taken from a report to the Association by C. V. Sidwell on March I, 1940, and some data are from a recent report by A. D. Small. It gives a brief history of the Wilcox zone, estimates of the initial oil contents of the reservoir, present conditions in the reservoir, and probable results from several programs of "secondary recovery." History of Wilcox Zone The Wilcox sand lies on the flank of the general structure, as shown by cross section of Fig. I2,3,4 and areal map of Fig. 2. The sand is of Ordovician age and is composed of well assorted, rounded sand grains with no apparent cementing material. The loose texture of the sand is shown by the enormous quantities of sand production from the wells and from the soft cores. The productive sand varies from zero thickness on the east to 220 ft. maximum and to zero thickness on the west because of water. The development of the pool4 as dependent upon drilling restrictions within the city limits, which accounts for the spacing of drilling operations listed in Table I by years. In 1931, areas I through 7 of Fig. 2 were open for drilling with the exception of some west-edge properties, and all wells drilled before Feb. I, 1935, were in this portion of the field. Nearly all wells drilled from 1933 to 1037 were in areas A, B and C. Since 1939, the newly drilled wells have gradually enlarged the producing area toward the west in the northern portion.

Jan 1, 1942

By D. L. Katz

The Oklahoma City Wilcox sand, discovered on March 26, 1930, has produced 394 million barrels of crude oil and 819 billion cubic feet of natural gas as of July I, 1941. The 100,000-bbl. wells, pressures of 2600 lb. per sq. in., and flows of "Wilcox" sand caused exciting moments in the early life of the field. Today the reservoir is substantially at atmospheric pressure and produccs 75,000 bbl. of crude oil daily through 466 pumping wells. Early estimates of the initial crude-oil content of the "Wilcox" sand1 indicated that about 600 million barrels of crude oil would remain after the pumping wells ceased to produce economically. The Oklahoma City Wilcox Secondary Recovery Association was organized in March 1939, to study the possibilities of recovering a portion of this oil. Only a very brief summary of the information available can be presented in a paper of this nature. Some simplifications and generalizations are necessary to give the over-all picture in SO short a space and statements made may not apply to a specific well or small area. Since the area under consideration by the Association is that north of the south line of section 22-11-3, some information will be presented for areas A, B, C, 1, 2, 3 and part of 4 of Fig. 2, and some will be for the entire Wilcox zone west of the fault. This paper is essentially an abstract of an engineering report made by A. D. Small, B. T. Murphree, M. C. Sons and the author for the Oklahoma City Wilcox Secondary Recovery Association on Sept. 5, 1940. Some information is taken from a report to the Association by C. V. Sidwell on March I, 1940, and some data are from a recent report by A. D. Small. It gives a brief history of the Wilcox zone, estimates of the initial oil contents of the reservoir, present conditions in the reservoir, and probable results from several programs of "secondary recovery." History of Wilcox Zone The Wilcox sand lies on the flank of the general structure, as shown by cross section of Fig. I2,3,4 and areal map of Fig. 2. The sand is of Ordovician age and is composed of well assorted, rounded sand grains with no apparent cementing material. The loose texture of the sand is shown by the enormous quantities of sand production from the wells and from the soft cores. The productive sand varies from zero thickness on the east to 220 ft. maximum and to zero thickness on the west because of water. The development of the pool4 as dependent upon drilling restrictions within the city limits, which accounts for the spacing of drilling operations listed in Table I by years. In 1931, areas I through 7 of Fig. 2 were open for drilling with the exception of some west-edge properties, and all wells drilled before Feb. I, 1935, were in this portion of the field. Nearly all wells drilled from 1933 to 1037 were in areas A, B and C. Since 1939, the newly drilled wells have gradually enlarged the producing area toward the west in the northern portion.

Jan 1, 1942

By Thomas M. Drown

IN a communication to this Institute at the Baltimore meeting, February, 1879,* on the "Determination of Silicon in Pig Iron and Steel," the method recommended was the treatment of the metal with nitric acid until action had ceased, and then evaporating with sulphuric acid until the nitric acid was nearly or quite driven off After filtration of the siliceous and carbonaceous residue, and washing with hot water and hydrochloric acid, a silica was obtained, on ignition, which was quite pure. Since this paper was read before the Institute, we have had large experience with the method, and * Transactions, vol. vii, p. 346.

Jan 1, 1880

By Robert L. Akright

LOCATION AND HISTORY The Candelaria silver mine is located in an arid, isolated desert setting in Sections 3 and 4, T.3N., R.35E., and Section 33, T.4N., R.35E., Mineral County, Nevada (Fig. 1). Silver was discovered in 1863 by Mexican explorers, and high grade silver veins were mined from the early 1870s through the 1880s. Essentially all mining had ended by 1890. The veins were mined by underground methods typical of the period. As is the case in many mining districts, Candelaria was studied and explored by a number of companies. All these efforts were terminated short of mine development because of low silver prices and difficult metallurgy. On March 1, 1976, Occidental Minerals (Oxymin) entered into a Limited Partnership agreement, known as Candelaria Partners, as General Partner with Congdon and Carey Ltd. No. 4. Prior to the agreement, Congdon and Carey had acquired the candelaria properties as part of a bullish silver program and did considerable exploration which indicated the possibility of a large reserve of shallow silver mineralization. GEOLOGY AND ORE DEPOSITS Silver and gold mineralization in the Candelaria district occurs in high-grade fissure veins with silver values ranging from 0.6 to 7.8 kg/t (20 to 250 oz per st). These veins, combined with the low grade disseminated mineralization in the intervening material between the veins, form Manto- like deposits 15 to 46 m (50 to 150 ft) thick. Three such deposits are found in the Candelaria district: the Lucky Hill, Mount Diablo, and Northern Belle deposits (Figs. 2 and 3). The average ore grade of the Lucky Hill and Mount Diablo [ ]

Jan 1, 1985

By James Howe

EVERY engineer and user of wire rope is desirous of information that will enable him to determine whether the performance of any particular piece of rope is satisfactory, and what conditions can be changed so as to increase the life of a rope. In most cases, it is far from easy to analyze the conditions of service and tell which is the greatest factor in determining the life of wire rope. If we start on a layout for an entirely new rope system, the task of making conditions satisfactory is simplified so far as the engineering details are concerned; but if the plant requiring wire rope is in operation, any change is likely to involve the expenditure of consider-, able money to replace and change over machinery that must be kept in constant operation, because a large monetary loss will result from a shutdown for even a few days. Often wire rope is kept operating under bad conditions, as the user thinks that it is cheaper and quicker to replace the rope than to make alterations in the hoisting machinery. A typical case is a metal mine operating in what is now almost the center of a large mining city, where it owns a few acres of mineral rights. It was expected that the shaft would go to a depth of 1000 ft. (305 m.), so a moderate sized rope, about 1 ¼ in. (31.7 mm.), was used on a 6-ft. drum with a 7-ft. head-frame sheave and rather short lead from drum to head sheave. This mine has gone deeper each year until, it is now 2500 ft. deep and the rope speed has been increased from 1500 ft. per min. to over 3000 ft. The original rope just filled the drum in one layer, now it overwinds three layers. The original ropes were probably 6 X 19 crucible steel and lasted from 12 to 18 mo.; now, the highest grade plow steel is used, yet the average service is only about 6 mo. The cause is not hard to find. If the engineers had known at the outset what would be done with this hoist, the design would have been very different. Conditions at this mine, from a wire rope standpoint, have gradually become worse and it is difficult to see how rope service on this hoist can be com-pared with the service of previous years with any fairness to the wire-

Jan 2, 1922

. E. P. MATHEWSON, New York, N. Y.-I would like to call attention to the excellent plan for protecting the lining of the tanks from rough handling by the excavator. Many engineers, when considering mechanical excavators for lead-lined tanks, have been afraid that the machinery might get out' of order and rip out the lining. This difficulty seems to have been entirely overcome in this installation, and those who have been responsible for its success deserve a great deal of credit. A. F. CASE,* Cleveland, Ohio. (written discussion t).-The application of the automatic unloader to the copper leaching process at Ajo was a very radical departure from the common use of this machine, inasmuch as the only previous use of this device has been in connection with the unloading of coal and ore from vessels on the Great Lakes. There are many phases in connection with the unloading of ore from lake vessels that are not presented in the extraction of ore tailings from leaching vats. For instance, in unloading from boats, it is necessary to provide means to reach under the hatches to parts of the cargo hold which do not lie directly under the hatches, and to work in inaccessible places that do not exist in a leaching vat. These necessities require complications that could be very easily dispensed with in this new application. On this account the unloader, is applied to the New Cornelia, plant, represents what is probably the simplest development of the machine that has ever been produced, and, manifestly, in its simplest form it could he expected to show results corresponding to its performances when installed with all of its complications. One of the requirements of vessel unloading is extreme vertical travel, when the bucket is required to reach the bottom of the, cargo hold, often 12 or 13 ft. below water-level, and discharge into a receptacle 30 ft. above-the water. This was materially simplified at Ajo for the reason that the vertical travel was never more than 20 ft. This condition immediately resulted in the possibility of shortening the walking beam which carries the bucket leg, and, in fact, in entirely reducing the size of all the working, parts of the trolley, walking beam, and bucket leg, as far as reaches were concerned.

Jan 11, 1918

By Albert Hoskinson

PROGRESS on the earth depends to a large extent upon the rapid inter-change of ideas and commodities between the various nations of the world. The smooth flow of commerce, by which these ideas and com-modities move, is accelerated by accurate and complete maps of the various land and water areas of the earth, The production of accurate maps depends upon a complete knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the object to be charted, therefore a knowledge of the shape of the earth is a prime necessity for accurate charting purposes. Gravity observa-tions were first undertaken to aid in determining the shape of the earth so that the geodetic surveys of its land and water areas might be more accurately connected to form an undistorted map. A large part of the earth's surface is water and it is therefore necessary to get gravity values at sea as well as on land before a complete and accurate figure of the earth can be determined. Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz, of Holland, was the first scientist to perfect a pendulum instrument that would accurately measure gravity at sea. He had previously developed a multiple pendulum apparatus for measur-ing gravity upon swampy and unstable land areas in Holland and it was therefore quite natural that he should adapt the instrument to give accurate results upon a still more unstable support, the surface of the sea. His instrument as perfected gives satisfactory results when mounted in gimbals on any vessel where the roll and pitch are not more than about 5° and where the vibrations from rotating machinery and wave action are not large enough to cause the pendulums to shift on the knife-edges. This degree of stability can be obtained on surface craft only in protected waters or on very calm days. Therefore, Dr. Meinesz mounted his instrument in a. submarine so that he could submerge below the disturbed surface waters and get the desired stability in nearly any kind of weather by simply diving to greater depths. Most of the gravity-at-sea work has been done with a Meinesz instrument and a very large number of the observations have been made by Dr. Meinesz himself. He has occupied nearly 1000 sea stations and probably has traveled as many miles by

Jan 1, 1938

By John F. Knudsen

Following the flowsheet from the primary crushing plant of Ray mines division through the final products sample mill, there are eight exhaust systems ranging in size from 12,000 to 30,000 cfm. Where possible, hood face velocities are kept around 500 ft per min, permitting branch velocities of 2500 ft per min. Tight-fitting enclosures are provided over all ore drops, crushing operations, and vibrating screens. All enclosures are exhausted either primarily or secondarily, except those around conveyor head-pulleys where the ejector effect of the falling ore creates sufficient indraft to abate dust dissemination. IN 1947 an Industrial Hygiene Department was organized to represent and assist the four western mining divisions in industrial hygiene problems. Department headquarters are located at the Utah Copper Division, Magna Plant, Magna, Utah, with a branch office at the Chino Mines Division, Hurley, N. M. The headquarters staff includes a director, a department secretary, an industrial hygienist, a supervising ventilation engineer, and two ventilation designers. To be in closer association with work at the Southwest properties, a field engineer at the branch office conducts field studies which include ventilation problems at the New Mexico and Arizona properties;i.e., the Chino and Ray mines divisions. Functions of the department are to discover and evaluate existing hazards and to develop protective measures, either by personal protective devices or by proper ventilation, depending on the nature of the contaminant. Other than dust counting, all air samples collected at the four properties are processed at the home office. If through plant surveys or by suggestion of management some type of ventilation or air conditioning is required, the problem is usually handled by the ventilation section of the headquarters department, where general arrangement or line drawings are prepared, showing hoods, ducting, and equipment. Some hood and special parts detailing is done at headquarters; otherwise, required detailing is done by the respective plant engineering departments. Prior to the design of industrial ventilation, either new projects or the revamping of old ones, a thorough survey is made of existing conditions. In so far as possible weighted average exposures are determined and adequate ventilation provided on the basis of maximum allowable concentrations of the contaminant in question, as well as medical case histories, if these are available.

Jan 1, 1954

By Donald Barton

THE theory of gravitation is based on Newton's law that any two bodies exert a mutual attraction which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; i. e. A= K MM/R2 (1) where K is a constant, M and m are the respective masses of the two bodies, and R the distance between them. In the earth's gravitational system, the earth is one of the bodies; the other may be any body within or without the earth. In theoretical discussions and calculations in regard to gravity, that other body usually is taken as a unit of mass: in the C. G. S. system, a body of one gram in mass.

Jan 1, 1928

By W. K. Hardy, H. H. Stadelmaier, L. J. Huetter

The ternary system Co-Sn-C was studied in the cobalt-rich region. The liquidus projection ulas established and two fonr -phase reactions were found. An isothermal section at 950°C was worked out. In the region studied the following phases were observed: cobalt-rich solid solution, graphite, binary compound y -cobalt-tin, and a ternary compound. As a result of the limited solubility of carbon in liquid cobalt-tin alloys, the investigation was limited to the cobalt-rich region. Tin contents up to 32 at. pct were studied. Cobalt of 99.99 pct purity, tin of 99.97 pct purity and synthetic graphite of 99.93 pct minimum purity prepare the alloys. Carbon determinations of all alloys were obtained by gas volumetric analysis. Samples were investigated microscopically and by X-ray diffraction using CoK, and FeK, radiation. Cooling curves were obtained with a number of alloys to determine the temperature of the four-phase reactions. The thermocouple was calibrated with the melting points of high-purity silver and copper. In the region studied the following phases were observed: Cobalt-rich solid solution (face-centered cubic) Graphite. Binary compound y (solidifies congruently at composition Cop~n)'. Ternary compound k which is face-centered cubic with superlattice and nonferromagnetic.' In Fig. 1 the fields representing the projections of the liquidus surfaces were determined by microscopic investigation and are labled by their primary phase. In the field labled C graphite is the primary phase. During solidification in this field much of the primary graphite was expelled through the surface of the melt. It could not always be established microscopically whether the remaining graphite was primary or purely eutectic. Therefore it was not possible to determine accurately the boundary curve which drops from the binary eutectic el at 1309 "~~ to the point of the four-phase reaction at F. The ter-nary carbide is the primary phase in the field labled k. To the right of this field the primary graphite is consistently nodular whereas flake graphite is observed at tin contents somewhat below F. The ternary carbide does not appear to solidify congruently. The graphite is attacked in a peritectic reaction along the boundary between k and C. Thus no graphite is observed in alloys in the k field. In alloys right of the boundary between k and C the graphite nodules are located in the center of the k crystallites, further documenting the peritectic nature of the reaction with the graphite. A four-phase reaction was found at F and 1120 &3"C. The most likely reaction is L+ CY-Co + C — k. Below the temperature of the binary eutectic ez at 1112" a second four-phase reaction was observed at E and 1100 lt3"C. It is the ternary eutectic L — CY-Co + k + y. Figs. 2(a ) to (e) show microstructures of the ternary alloys in the as-cast condition. Fig. 2(a) shows the eutectic a-Co + C (with some primary graphite) with the carbide k in the grain boundaries. Fig. 2(b) shows primary cobalt (dark areas) and the eutectic a-Co + k which is formed along F-E.

Jan 1, 1961

IRON AND STEEL COMMITTEE ALBERT SAUVEUR, Chairman A. A. STEVENSON, Vice-Chairman HERBERT M. BOYLSTON, Secretary, Abbot Bldg., Cambridge, Mass. Guilliaem Aertsen, Henry M. Howe, E. Gybbon Spilsbury, John Birkinbine, _Robert-W. Hunt, J, S. Unger; William-H. Blauvelt, J:-E: Johnson, Jr., Felix A: Vogel; Charles A. Buck, Charles Kirchhoff, Leonard Waldo, Ernest F. Burchard, Richard Moldenke, William R. Walker, F. D. Carney, Charles F. Rand, William R. Webster, James Gayley, Joseph W. Richards, Frederick W. Wood. Henry D. Hibbard, C. F. W. Rys, There will be a meeting of the Institute in Pittsburg on Oct. 8, 9, and 10, 1914. This meeting will be under the joint auspices of the Iron and Steel Committee, the Committee on Coal and Coke, and the Committee on Petroleum and Gas. The iron and steel papers will probably be presented on Oct. 8. The following papers have been received and accepted and will be read at the October meeting.

Jan 6, 1914

By E. R. Johnson

THE copper concentrator of the Braden Copper Co. is at Sewell, Chile, on the western flank of the main Cordillera of the Andes, at an air distance of approximately 50 miles southeast of Santiago, the capital of Chile. The region is mountainous and space is at a premium because of the rough terrain and the danger of snowslides. The ore, a porphyry copper, is mined by a block-caving method in the El Teniente mine. It is hauled to the crushing plant, a distance of 2.6 miles, through a tunnel because of the severe climatic conditions. The usual large, coarsely set, primary reduction machines found in many ore-treating plants are not required because of the mining method employed and the limiting 12-in. spacing of the grizzlies at the head of each ore pass in the mine. It is the purpose of this paper to describe the numerous improvements made in the crushing section of this large flotation concentrator during the past 15 years to increase the efficiency of the plant and to raise the daily output from around 20,000 to 30,000 tons. The reader should keep in mind that all changes were made within the existing building because of the limited space and the high cost of the heavy mill construction required to withstand the snow loads. The present plant, as well as the former, operates on a 24-hr, 7 days a week basis. FORMER PLANT The crushing plant commenced operations at its present site in 1921, the main equipment being No. 7 1/2 gyratories, followed by 48-in. horizontal Symons disk crushers. Fines were removed by 1-in. stationary grizzlies ahead of each unit. In 1924 a third stage of crushing was provided by the addition of 55 1/2-in. rolls in open circuit. During 1925, the Symons disks were replaced by 73 1/2-in. rolls. All the rolls were changed to closed circuit, with elevators and screens to give a final product of 9 pct plus 3-mesh. The flowsheet of a typical crushing section of this period is shown in Fig I. The ore was withdrawn from a common bin serving the five crushing sections in the plant by means of any number up to six 36-in. wide-apron feeders, which discharged onto a common conveyor belt. This conveyor was equipped with a magnetic head pulley and the crusher attendant was stationed near the discharge end to pick out pieces of mine timber that might be in the ore. The ore was discharged over a 1 3/4-in. spaced bar grizzly and the oversize of this grizzly was crushed by a No. 7 1/2 McCully gyratory crusher set at 1 3/4-in. opening on the closed side. The grizzly undersize joined the gyratory discharge and was conveyed to a set of 73 1/2 by 20-in. Garfield rolls set at I in. These rolls operated in closed circuit with a bucket elevator and two vibrating screens placed in parallel.

Jan 1, 1947

MINING ENGINEERING presents the annual membership report of the Society of Mining Engineers; see page 147.

Jan 7, 1964

By C. H. Jr. Herty

IT Is well known that manganese will desulfurize molten iron through the formation of manganese sulfide, which, being only slightly soluble in the metal, rises to and enters the slag where it remains as such (mixer slag) or is converted partly or wholly to calcium sulfide (basic open¬hearth slag). The reaction by which manganese sulfide is formed is Mn + FeS = MnS + Fe. This reaction is generally considered to be reversible, although McCance1 states- that such is not the case. The experimental work was carried out to confirm the results of Rohl2 as to the reversibility of the reaction. Six trials are herein considered. In each 200 grams of electrolytic iron free from manganese and sulfur were melted in a pure zirconia crucible in a carbon resistance electric furnace. To the melted iron in runs 2, 3 and 4 metallic manganese and manganese sulfide were added to give 1, 2 and 4 per cent. manganese respectively, with 0.50 per cent. of sulfur in each. In runs 5, 6 and 7, metallic manganese andiron sulfide to give the same proportions of manganese and sulphur as in runs 2, 3 and 4, were added. The melts were held molten in the furnace for an hour and then cast into small ingots.

Jan 2, 1925

By T. J. Woods

Tars paper deals with the origin, definition and prevention of scabs an semifinished rolled-steel product. Mold coatings, which are considered essential in scab prevention, were found to be effective only in relation to the ingot surface of semikilled and killed steels and not necessary for the rolled product. That is to say, the scabs on ingots caused by having been cast in uncoated molds are eliminated in the soaking and rolling operations, therefore are not present on the rolled product. This fact, which is contrary to the average opinion, was established after extensive and thorough experiments had proved the ordinary conception of the origin of scabs to be incorrect. This subject may be of little or no concern to steel plants producing small ingots for the manufacture of small billets and bars, except as it may be of interest in showing why their surface troubles with scabs do not exist on the product of heats with normal pouring practice. But to the producer of large ingots to be rolled into slabs for large plates used in shipbuilding, it is a very important subject. DEFINITION OF A SCAB The generally accepted opinion is that the individual scabs present on rolled products (as shown by Fig. I) are considered to have been individual splashes on the ingot surface. This opinion was found to be incorrect. Experiments showed that there were no individual scabs on the product that had appeared as individuals on the ingot surface. The single scabs seen are either pieces of a shell that is present near the bottom of all top-cast ingots, or a veneer that may be present on any part of an ingot improperly poured, as when the stream strikes the mold wall. This definition is based on a detailed study of scabs and their characteristics in which the following have been found true: Location.- On the product of heats poured without trouble, scabs, if present, are always on the product that corresponds to the bottom end of the ingot, and usually occur in clusters, This is true whether molds are coated or not. Shape.-There is no regularity as to shape, size or thickness. It is sometimes possible to separate a few pieces and place them together, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, indicating that at one time they had been united as one piece. If individual splashes were the origin of scabs, the foregoing would not be true. Instead, the splashes, which occur throughout the pouring of the ingots, would be present uniformly over the entire product and there would be considerable similarity in the shape and thickness of the scabs. EXPERIMENTAL WORK Our experimental work was conducted on 200-ton heats of semikilled plate steel tapped into an oval ladle 15 ft. high. All ingots were top-cast direct into 24 by 54 by 82-in. molds, straight-sided, set on fat stools. Two separate studies were made about one year apart, each study extending

Jan 1, 1943

By Stephen Taber

INTRODUCTION THE term asbestos, as commonly used, includes half a dozen minerals all having a well-developed fibrous structure, but differing in chemical composition and in some of their physical, properties. In its strict application the name is limited to the fibrous varieties of the monoclinic amphiboles. Commercially, however, the most important of the asbestiform minerals is chrysotile, a fibrous variety of serpentine. About 95 per cent. of the asbestos used in manufacturing is chrysotile, and it commands a much higher price than any of the other fibrous minerals now on the market. Although the production of asbestos has increased rapidly in recent years, comparatively little has been published concerning its origin. The present paper is preliminary in its nature, and therefore does not pretend to exhaust the subject. The ideas herein developed are the result of field investigation, laboratory experiments in the growth of fibrous

Jan 10, 1916

By Walter Harvey Weed

INTRODUCTION. IN a previous paper upon the enrichment of mineral veins by later metallic sulphides,† the writer has shown that certain masses of rich ores, such as are found in many mines, either near the water-line or as bonanzas in depth, are of secondary origin, and are due to a leaching of lean ore and the concentration of the material by reaction between the solution and the unaltered ore below. The geological and mineralogical evidence is believed to form an adequate basis for a chemical and physical explanation of the phenomenon. In the present paper the writer will give a brief synopsis of this theory, and will apply it more particularly to deposits of the precious metals, laying special emphasis upon the dependence of such enrichments upon the presence of iron sulphide (as pyrite, etc.) in the primary ore, and upon structural features which control the circulation of the enriching solutions below the water-level. It is believed that many, though not all, of the bonanzas and pay-shoots of rich sulphide ores, especially those carrying gold and silver, which are encountered in ore-deposits, are of such secondary origin. Apparently it is essential that the occurrence and structural relations of such ore-masses should be understood, as the success of the mine is often dependent upon the finding and extraction of these ores. A legitimate deduction, too, is that such ore-deposits decrease in value with depth. As my own studies have been mainly in Montana, my illustrations must be drawn from the ore-deposits of this and adjacent States, with such as I have noted in hurried visits elsewhere. The literature of ore-deposits doubtless affords also

Jan 1, 1902

By E. J. McKee

THE area discussed lies south of Canadian River in Hutchinson County, Texas, covering approximately 10 m. east and west and 4 m. north and south. Development is carried on in the manner usual in standard tool operations. No outstanding divergence from the usual methods is necessary as wells are completed in 35 to 55 days to approximately 3000 ft. Most of the time is lost in the upper part of the hole and is usually caused in driving pipe of larger sizes. After approximately 1500 ft., little trouble occurs. A comparison of 13 contractors drilling for Phillips Petroleum Co. gave the following averages: Drilling time from 32 to 63 days with a daily footage of from 49 to 87 ft. per day. The rigs furnished are National turnbuckle type with 6-in. irons and steel wheels.

Jan 11, 1926

By C. O. Tarr, G. V. Smith, R. F. Miller

METALLURGISTS have long recognized that the Fe3C type of carbide is not a stable phase in steel and that, given sufficient time, it will decompose with formation of graphite, at least at temperatures below about 2050°F.1 This slow graphitization has never been of much concern to users of hypoeutectoid steels, for in such steels it occurs only during prolonged exposure at elevated temperature. In 1935, Kinzel and Moore2 reported complete graphitization of the carbide of a 0.1 5 per cent carbon steel that had been in senrice for about 26,000 hr. at a temperature of about 1100° to 1200°F. In discussing this paper, both Mathews and Sauveur reported graphitization of slightly hypereutectoid steels. In an extensive investigation of graphitization of high-purity iron-carbon alloys, Wells1 produced graphite at 7o0°C. (1290°F.) in an alloy containing as little as 0.13 per cent carbon, and showed that graphite may precipitate either directly from austenite or from decomposition of Fe3C, also that the rate of graphitization tends to increase with increase of temperature, at least up to a certain point, and with the presence of graphite nuclei. Jenkins, Mellor and Jenkinson,3 studying the structural changes in carbon steels ranging from 0.17 to 1.14 per cent carbon during stress-rupture tests at elevated temperature, obsenred graphite in an aluminum-killed 0.40 per cent carbon steel after fracture in 4340 hr. under a stress of 17,900 lb. per sq. in. at 840°F. and in many of the steels after stress-rupture test at 1200°F. Unstressed samples of 0.60, 0.86 and 1.14 per cent carbon steels graphitized almost completely in 360 hr. at 1200°F., while samples of 0.90 and 1.10 per cent carbon steels were somewhat graphitized, and steels containing 0.24, 0.40 and 0.57 per cent carbon showed no sign of graphite. Their results indicate that graphite precipitates the more readily the higher the carbon content, though this tendency is influenced to some extent by deoxidation practice, and that graphitization is accelerated by plastic deformation. In a recent study of the graphitization of 0.4 and 0.6 per cent carbon steel strip, made by M. A. Hughes,4 it was found that at 1200°F. graphite appeared after 72 hr. in aluminum-killed but not in silicon-killed steel, and that the rate of graphitization was increased by slow cooling from 1600°F. and by cold-working prior to annealing. In creep tests of normalized o. I 5 per cent carbon steel killed with 2.5 lb. of aluminum per ton, at the U. S. Steel Corporation laboratory at Kearny, spheroidization and some graphitization were found after 3000 hr. at 1000°F. under a stress as low as 15m lb. per sq. inch.

Jan 1, 1944

By G. F. Loughlin

The subject of this lecture might well have been assigned to an economist or banker rather than to a geologist, but, as it was deliberately assigned to me, it is to be treated from a geologist's viewpoint. The term precious metals ordinarily includes the platinum group as well as gold and silver. Platinum, like silver, has had a great decline in price during the last few years, but has not been a medium of exchange and therefore has aroused comparatively little comment. Its relation to price level is like that of commodities in general, and will be dismissed without further comment. Of the two precious metals used as mediums of exchange gold, because of its adoption as the basis of most monetary systems and because of its threatened shortage in the near future; has been a subject of general concern to governments, financiers, and economists; silver, on the other hand, which has flooded the market of late has brought forth cries for help, direct or indirect, from producers and to a less extent from the largest users, especially China, whose purchasing power has been greatly curtailed, but it fails to arouse the interest that gold does. Many predictions have been made by economists, bankers, and others regarding future supply of gold and its effect on prices but the differences among these predictions are about as many as the number of prophets. Since gold is the standard by which the value of commodities as a whole is to be measured, it would seem that the greater the ratio of gold supply to commodities the higher the price level and vice

Jan 1, 1932