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By C. A. Heiland W. E. Pugh

The principle underlying the majority of magnetic intensity variometers is a comparison of the force to be measured with another force of known magnitude. The known force may be (a) of a magnetic nature, such as magnetic fields produced by magnets or coils, or (b) of a mechanical nature, such as (1) the elastic forces of wires, or (2) the force of gravity, such as employed in bifilar magnetometers and magnetic balances. In instruments of such type, usually a magnetic system is employed, free to move about either a horizontal or vertical axis, on some sort of a suspension. If the earth's magnetic field alone were present, such a system would adjust itself into the direction of the field or that of its components. Owing to the simultaneous action of the comparison force, however, the magnetic needle assumes a position that differs from the direction of the magnetic force; for all such instruments, the angle of deflection is given by tan = FIX, where F is the known and X the unknown earth magnetic force component. In other words, the magnetic system merely serves as an "indicator" for the position of balance of the two forces. Considering the matter from this point of view, it is not immediately obvious why the temperature of such a magnetic system should modify the results. In magnetic instruments, we may distinguish two different effects of temperature: (1) a magnetic effect and (2) a mechanical effect. The first is due to the fact that the magnetic moment of a magnet drops with an increase in temperature. This drop is characterized by the temperature coefficient of the magnetic moment (see equation 1). The second effect is due to the change in the torsion of suspension wires with temperature or to the expansion of lever arms of masses acting on magnetic balances.

Jan 1, 1934

By G. Krauss, W. Pitsch

The fine structure of the bcc martensite formed in an Fe-33 wt pct ATi single crystal of arrstenite is sho~on by transmission electron microscoPy to consist of combinations of transformation twins, stacking faults, deformation twins, and regular arrays of parallel screw dislocations. These structures constitute evidence for the multiple lattice-invariant deformations which operating during the formation of martensite could produce the real habit-plane scatter measured by a two-surface analysis of the plates formed in the single crystal of this investigation and reported in the literature for other Fe-Ni rnartensites. CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC theories1,2 of martensitic transformation show that the habit plane of martensite in a parent lattice is dependent in part upon an inhomogeneous distortion or lattice-invariant deformation which takes place on a fine scale within a martensite plate during its formation. Several recent theoretical papers3,4 have addressed themselves to an analysis of a wide variety of conceivable lat-tice-invarient deformations and the habit planes which they produce, while experimental investigation have been concerned with either the measurement of habit planes or the description and identification of the martensitic fine structure which reflects the nature of the lattice-invariant deformation operating during transformation. In Fe-Ni alloys with subzero Ms temperatures, the group of alloys with which this paper concerns itself, habit planes have often been found to scatter an amount greater than might be expected from possible experimental errors,5-7 and fine twinning has been identified as a major constituent of the fine structure of martensite.8-11 It has been suggested3,4 that more than one type of invariant shear occurs during martensitic transformation. This possibility has been experimentally supported12,13 by the observation of both dislocation configurations and twinning in a single martensite plate. The purpose of this paper is to report additional evidence for multiple lattice-invariant deformations in martensite and so to account for the real scatter in the habit planes of the martensite plates formed in Fe-Ni alloys. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The Fe-Ni single crystal was produced by pulling a high-purity iron and nickel charge through a single-crystal vacuum furnace in an alumina crucible. The crystal was double-melted to promote homogeneity and to increase its size by further additions on the second pass. In its final form the crystal was 4 cm in diam and 5 cm long. The nickel and carbon contents were analyzed at 32.9 and 0.006 wt pct, respectively. The austenite of this alloy first transformed to martensite by bursts at about -120°C, and, to preserve as much of the austenite as possible, all transformation was performed just below -120°C. Some observations were made on transformed samples which had been heated for 2 min at 340°C. It is assumed that the features of the martensite of these samples, Figs. 1 and 4, are the same as those of the as-quenched martensite. Orientation of the crystal by X-ray diffraction established 10.735 0.609 0.3161? as the axis of the crystal, an orientation that was checked within 2 deg by neutron diffraction. Further checks by electron diffraction of samples cut normal to the axis confirmed this orientation within the larger limits of error inherent in electron diffraction of thin foils. The X-ray orientation was the one used for the two-surface analysis of the martensite habit planes. A two-surface analysis was performed on the quadrant of the single crystal which had been oriented by both X-ray and neutron-diffraction techniques. Photomicrographs at X50 were made on two surfaces along an edge 2 cm long. Fiducial marks and the fact that many of the plates were almost completely surrounded by retained austenite made good matching of individual plates on two surfaces possible. The habit-plane trace on a surface was taken as the best line parallel to the long axis of a plate. A measure of the accuracy afforded by this criterion was provided by a family of very large plates which appeared at intervals along the entire 2 cm length of the edge. The plates all had habit-plane traces within 2 deg of one another. Many of the plates did not show midribs and, therefore, the use of midribs7 to represent habit-plane traces was not feasible in this investigation. The over-all experimental accuracy is estimated to be better than ±2 deg. Samples for transmission examination in a Siemens Elmiskop I at 100 kv were prepared by cutting 2-mm-thick discs from the single crystal, removing about 0.5 mm by chemical polishing,14 trans-

Jan 1, 1965

By D. W. Mitchell

J. H. Schlobohm (Joy Manufacturing Co., New York) —This paper has been read with a good deal of interest; however, there are several salient features which Mr. Mitchell has overlooked. The initial emphasis on selection should be placed on type of material to be loaded and method of mining involved. There is no possible connection in the comparison of scraper or Joy Lohite loaders with loaders of any other type. Neither can an operating comparison be made between "Rocker type" loaders and those equipped with loading head and gathering arms. Each unit has its application, but the application depends on material and the mining system involved. Mr. Mitchell's compilation of data on various loaders, while it represents a great many facts, does not represent true operational data, i.e. Table I, column heading "Max. Rated Capacity for 7 hr;" these figures are meaningless inasmuch as little or no time at all is allowed for tramming or switching or moving the loader from place to place. Table I, column heading, "Best Reported Field Shift," would be a better source of operational data, assuming of course that conditions, applicable to each class of loaders, were average to avoid enthusiastic performance figures. Table I, column heading, "Repair Parts Cost per Ton," is still another item which will not stand up under comparison unless the loaders involved are put into type classes, i.e., there are simply no means possible to show the repair costs of scraper loading versus a caterpillar mounted loader in abrasive material. The source of information here is also important. Actual field tests have proved that these costs are of a constant nature. Manufacturers are striving to hold them to a minimum and many interesting studies have been made. A fairly recent example of this in a large United States gold producer has proved that Joy HL-3 loaders can be consistently average, less than $0.025 per ton mucked. This cost represents repair labor and parts over a two year

Jan 1, 1952

By Harry A. Roe

The power drag scrapers and the slackline cableway excavator have been called "long-range excavators." Broadly, their field of usefulness is restricted to work in which their long range of action permits them to operate economically, and which other, possibly more conventional, excavating units cannot do. Both of these machines dig or lift material and transport it to a remote dumping point. They combine these two functions in a single machine, nearly always in a single straight-line motion. The purpose of this paper is to examine the important features that distinguish the machines in this group from each other, as well as from other groups. The Machines The "power drag scraper" is a long-range excavating machine that employs a bottomless drag scraper operated back and forth between digging and dumping points by two haulage cables. The typical arrangement is that of Fig. 1. This is the "slusher" of the underground mine, as well as the "dragline scraper" of the sand and gravel industry, and other open-pit mining operations.

Jan 1, 1938

By Harry A. Roe

The power drag scrapers and the slackline cableway excavator have been called "long-range excavators." Broadly, their field of usefulness is restricted to work in which their long range of action permits them to operate economically, and which other, possibly more conventional, excavating units cannot do. Both of these machines dig or lift material and transport it to a remote dumping point. They combine these two functions in a single machine, nearly always in a single straight-line motion. The purpose of this paper is to examine the important features that distinguish the machines in this group from each other, as well as from other groups. The Machines The "power drag scraper" is a long-range excavating machine that employs a bottomless drag scraper operated back and forth between digging and dumping points by two haulage cables. The typical arrangement is that of Fig. 1. This is the "slusher" of the underground mine, as well as the "dragline scraper" of the sand and gravel industry, and other open-pit mining operations.

Jan 1, 1938

By P. B. Bucky

IN previous publications1 it was shown that a scalar model of any weighty structure, where the stresses produced are mainly due to gravita-tional forces, will behave similarly to its prototype if the model and proto-type material are the same arid the model is placed in a centrifugal field of force (substituted for the gravitational field) which has been increased in the same proportion as the linear model scale is decreased. This principle is now being applied to a study of the behavior of mine structures in an attempt to determine the laws that control them. The importance of using models as a means of solving mining problems has been discussed previously, yet it may be well to reiterate here that this method of research and type of solution have been productive of far-reaching results in other engineering fields, notably those of hydraulics and aerodynamics. Model research is a comparatively cheap and time-saving method of checking practical experience. Up to the present time the best guide to what will happen underground has been the judgment of the man who has observed most and been longest acquainted with the local conditions. His experimental work underground is limited by the elements of cost, time and danger, while failure is seldom permissible. In a model, as in a test tube, all elements that affect the solution of a problem are under definite control. Each element may be varied independently at will and its effects noted. Experimental work on a small-scale model may there¬fore be performed at a comparatively small expenditure of time and money, instead of on a full scale in the mine, where the cost, time, and danger elements are necessarily great. The experiments described in this paper are to be considered as part of a progress report and a continuation of Technical Paper 425. One object of the research program is to make each experiment point the way for further research on that particular phase of the general problem. The results and conclusions presented here are therefore not to be considered as final, but are to be interpreted as

Jan 1, 1933

By Robert Bosworth

THE liability for damages to the surface caused by subsidence is an ever present threat in all underground mining. In ordinary lode mining, this threat rarely materializes into an action, due to the method of mining metalliferous ores, the dip of the veins, and the nature of the ground itself. In the mining of coal, however, this threat is very real. The coal frequently lies close to the surface, in beds underlying large areas of land of which the surface is suitable for: agricultural or urban development. Furthermore, the coal is generally mined by the "room and pillar" method and when the pillars of coal are removed, the subjacent support is destroyed. This question of the duty of surface support has now become a very live one in Colorado. What was waste prairie land a few years ago has become valuable agricultural land dotted here and there with growing towns. Frequent references will' be made here to Colorado conditions and adjudicated cases, but those conditions and cases and the conclusions to be drawn therefrom are applicable to all coal-mining states. Briefly stated, the question is "Does the owner of the substrata or underlying mineral owe any duty of surface support to the owner of the superjacent strata or surface?" There is no absolute duty of support owed by the mineral owner and this assertion is made with full knowledge of numerous expressions to the contrary by courts of Pennsylvania, Illinois, Colorado and other coal-mining states. Whether or not any duty exists depends upon the circumstances surrounding each case, and since in the nature of things those circumstances are rarely identical, there can be no absolute rule.

Jan 1, 1928

By Bernard Greifer, Walter Rose

The purpose of this note is to call attention to a source of difficulty which can be responsible for inaccurate estimates of wetting liquid pressure gradients in mixture flow experiments of the Hassler1 type. It has been our experience occasionally to observe what were indicated to be negative pressure gradients, and these were regarded as anomalous in the sense that physically they seemed to contradict the requirement that the flux be in the direction of the potential field. At first it was thought that our scheme of assembling barriers and core sample led to such asymmetry in the distribution of isobars that the manometric leads at each end of the core were responding to internal pressures (within the core sample) which could be either positive or negative with respect to each other, and which in fact might tend to reflect on different effective core lengths in an unpredictable fashion as the wetting liquid saturation was changed. However, no compelling evidence of this possibility has been established. In addition, we were cognizant of the requirements to be satisfied in selecting manometric instrumentation to minimize the delay in response of the manometer to the differential pressures being measured, and were thus assured that our observations of anomalous pressure gradients could not be explained by faulty instrumentation. What we suggest is that if a leak sink occurs in the fluid lines connecting the core to either side of the differential manometer, errors exceeding 100 per cent may result in the estimation of wetting liquid pressure gradient, even though the leak is of such small magnitude that its existence would tend to be obscured by evaporation effects. This is because in a system with leaks at the specified places, the manometer rec- ords at steady state the pressure drop across the manometer barrier elements in addition to the pressure drop across the core sample. This possibility will be illustrated below analytically and by numerical example for the special case where the leak occurs on the high presure side of the core, since we are especially desirous to explain the significance of our observations of the so-called negative pressure gradients. It will be indicated, however, that leak sinks on the low pressure side of the core can account for observations of anomalously high values of pressure gradient, and that multiple leaks on both sides of the core can provide for some compensation so that the errors in pressure estimation are reduced. However, the major point to be emphasized is the fact that the impractical-ity of detecting the small leak sinks which give rise to the difficulties makes it a complicated task for the experimenter in a particular case to know with certainty that his estimation of pressure gradient lies within the limits of error which can be tolerated. Fig. 1 shows the electrical analog of the flow system we have employed in our studies. The inflow and outflow barriers. Rbl and Rb2, the manometer barriers, Rm1, and Rm2, and the core sample, Rc— for a particular fluid saturation and distribution— are all designated as resistance elements; the flowmeter is designated by an ammeter, A; the pressure source is designated by E; and the manometric device is designated by the voltmeter, V. Included in the circuit are the variable resistances, Rx and Ry, which may be regarded as the leak sinks, and which, in general, can vary in magnitude from zero (i.e., a large hole or shunt in the system) to infinity (i.e., no

Jan 1, 1950

By Maurice Ewing

THE purpose of this paper is to present the results of the application of the earth-resistivity method of subsurface investigation to the problem of locating seams of anthracite coal beneath a mantle of soil and subsoil. Details are given of the successful use of this method in locating the outcrops of anthracite seams in actual prospecting. The presence of the outcrop of an anthracite seam is indicated at points where electrical resistivity tests showed relatively low readings. The reason for, this is that in some localities the resistivity of anthracite was found to be about 0.0001 megohm-cm. compared to 1 to 200 megohm-cm. for shales and sandstones. For two reasons it is believed that the data sum-marized in this paper should be of particular interest. In the first place, most of the interpretations of the resistivity survey have been checked by subsequent drilling and some by the removal of the overburden and the exposing of the anthracite seams. It is infrequent that the oppor-tunity for checking results so thoroughly is given. In the second place, the fact that recent commentators 1.2.1 on the application of geophysical methods to mining have concluded that direct prospecting for anthracite and other types of coal is not promising makes the good results obtained more significant. So far as the authors can learn, the only previous experiment with electrical methods in the Pennsylvania anthracite field was one made by Sherwin F. Kelly in 1922, when he used the self-potential method at Wilkes-Barre4. The profile he made does not show a very marked correlation with the geologic cross section. Kelly points out that stray currents from electric motors in the mines undoubtedly affected his results, but the experience of the present authors with stray currents from mining machinery suggests the possibility that the potentials measured by Kelly were due almost entirely to this effect.

Jan 1, 1936

By A. A. Collins

When we speak of high copper on a lead blast furnace we think in terms of 4 to 5 pct, or. any lead charge carrying over 1 pct. Any copper on charge will produce its corresponding troubles such as lead well, extra slag losses, drossing problems, and the working up of the dross. This is indeed a very interesting subject and one that used to give the old-time lead metallurgists such as Eiler, Hahn and lles many worries, not so much in the actual operation of the hlast furnace but in the working up of the copper. When the American nletallurgists commenced with the American rectangular-shaped lead blast furnace in the 1870's and got away from the reverberatories such as were in use in Germany and other parts of the world, they went to greater tonnages, as 80 to 100 tons per day in comparison to the 20 to 30 tons per day in the other processes. With the greater tonnages along with insuficient settling capacity, the silver losses in some cases were increased. Hence the lead-fall was low, for there were no leady concentrates in those days to assist the metallurgist to gain lead or an absorber for the precious metals; and in some cases copper sulphides were added intentionally to the charge to produce a copper matte to lessen the silver losses through the dump slag. The operators in those days thought that where some copper was always present in the lead ores the copper should not enter into the reduced lead and alloy with it. This, by the way, is just the reverse of our present-day practice, when we try to put all of the copper into the blast furnace lead and to remove the same through the drossing kettles. Therefore the furnace was operated to produce a certain amount of matte or artificial sulphides, since, due to the great affinity of copper for sulphur, any copper present would enter the matte almost completely. Thus, the lead bullion produced was practically free from copper. The products of the furnace were metallic lead or lead bullion, containing 05 to 95 pct of the lead and about 96 pct of the silver which were in the ore—a lead-copper-iron matte which contained nearly all the copper in the ore and the slag, the waste product. In the United States, up through the year 1092, we find the small furnace 100 X 32 1/2 in. with 12 tuyeres, some 6 on each side, plagued with a small amount of poorly roasted sulphides— either from heap or hand roasters that produced matte. This matte was roasted and if poor in copper was returned for the ore smelting. Otherwise it was smelted either alone or with additions of rich slags or argentiferous copper ores, the products being lead and a highly cupriferous matte, the latter being subsequently worked up for its copper. The lead metallurgists kept trying and improving on furnace and roasting equipment designs until we find blalvin W. Iles constructing at the old Globe Plant at Denver what came to be the modern furnace. That is, in 1900 he built a furnace of 42 in. width by 140 in. at the tuyeres with a 10 in. bosh and a 16-ft ore column. This type has been more or less standard to the present time, though modified in width and length to meet the demand for large tonnages and improvements in structural details. In 1905 at Cananea, Mexico, Dwight and Lloyd developed the present down-draft sinter machine that has meant so much in producing a well-processed material for the lead blast furnace. In 1912 Guy C. Riddell came forth with double roasting at the East Helena Plant of the American Smelting and Refining Co., which removed the "zinc mush plague." Incidentally, with the introduction of double roasting, which most lead plants were forced into after 1924, when lead flotation came into its own, less matte or no matte was produced. When this stage arrived, the copper was forced into the dross and the casting of lead at the blast furnace lead-wells was stopped. In plants with a fair copper carry 1 pct or better on the blast furnace charge, the lead wells became inoperative once the production of matte stopped. The copper drosses clogged the lead wells and even with bombing, either water or dynamite, the operators could not keep them open. Thus, the lead wells were abandoned in some plants, such as at the El Paso and Chihuahua smelters of the American Smelting and Refinillg Co., and all lead taken out through the first settlers. The elimination of sulphur, espccially sulphide sulphur, from the blast furnace charge and the nonproductiori of matte resulted in a great saving of tinie, energy and equipment in the recirculation of the copper, With the copper content in the dross and dross-fall ranging in quantities from a few percent up to 60 pct, such as at El Paso, a drossing problem was created. As the old-time operators hated dross and buried the same in the shipping bullion, the modern metallurgists from 1925 on decided that with increasing dross-falls they would have to adopt the lead refiner's ideas of drossing kettles with subsequent treatment of the lead with a sulphur addition to have the shipping lead of 0.01

Jan 1, 1950

By B. Woyski

MANY writers, in discussing defects caused by oxidation and gassing of bronzes and red brasses advocate substantially the same cure for both. But from its nature, oxidation cannot take place if there is an excess of fuel in the furnace, while the gases absorbed by some alloys are products of incomplete combustion of the fuel. Hence the metal can be either oxidized or gassed, but it is doubtful whether these actions can take place simultaneously. Oxidation can be easily overcome by the use of deoxidizers or it may be avoided by protecting the molten metal with suitable fluxes. Absorption of gases is more difficult to overcome. The regulation of the air and fuel, so as to produce complete combustion, and the protection of the bath by mineral fluxes are the most important factors. Gas expulsion, resulting in gas holes, porosity, unsoundness, and swollen or cauliflower-headed risers, is said to have several causes. One writer' lists the most common causes in the order of their importance, as follows: Superheated metal, dirty or slaggy furnace conditions, using metals low in quality or those previously subjected to bad melting practice, poor grade of fuel, use of newly lined or damp ladles, indiscriminate mixing of scrap or illogical combinations of metal. Superheating the metal usually occurs when the heat is ready to be poured but for some reason must be held in the furnace. In this case, a careful furnace tender tries to avoid overheating the metal by keeping a mild fire; that is, a reducing fire which, unfortunately, results in gassing the metal. A dirty, slaggy furnace may result in gassing the metal by retarding the heating and prolonging the time necessary to bring the metal to the proper temperature, thereby increasing the chances of gassing in uncertain furnace atmosphere.

Jan 5, 1922

CONTENTS PAGE WARNER, ROBERT K.-Efficiency of Screening. Discussed by Robert C. Canby,Robert K. Warner, W. 0. Borcherdt, V. E. Flanagan 1 FAHRENWALD, A. W.-Surface Reactions in Flotation. Discussed by Arthur F. Taggart, A. M. Gaudin 7 Efficiency of Screening Discussion of the paper of ROBERT K. WARNER, presented at the New York Meeting, February, 1924, and issued, as Paper No. 1293-M, with MINING AND METALLURGY, January, 1924. ROBERT C. CANBY, Wallingford, Conn.-On page 2, the author speaks of the importance of using a testing sieve clothed with the same material as the screen being studied; does he regard this as essential? In practice, how does the screen efficiency calculated by the difficult-grain method compare with those computed by the usual undersize method? Is it possible by the author's method, to obtain a measure of efficiency that can safely be compared with that of another screen sizing a different ore? ROBERT K. WARNER.-The use of a testing sieve clothed like the mill screen being studied is desirable but not essential for routine work about a mill where the character of the feed varies little, as regards the shape of the grains and the sizing test. Close agreement in size of aperture between the sieve and the screen is, however, important if the data obtained are to be valuable to others working on a different feed. If the testing sieve is coarser than the mill screen, the efficiency will appear unfairly low; whereas if it is too fine one might get efficiencies greater than 100 per cent. because of the apparent oversize in the undersize. In either of these cases the usefulness of the difficult-grain method of calculation would be reduced. As screens wear, the undersize grows appreciably coarser so that it is desirable to test screens only when the cloth is new or else to provide testing sieves that are worn about the same amount. The futility of making efficiency observations on a. distorted or broken screen surface is obvious.

Jan 6, 1924

By W. E. Remmers

The defect in wire known as "cuppiness" has appeared and disappeared from time to time but the exact cause of its appearance or disappearance has not heretofore been known definitely. This defect is not limited to one particular metal or alloy but seems to be found at various times in all of the materials that are drawn into wire. Fig. 1 represents cuppy wire made from an aluminum alloy and Fig. 2 illustrates copper wire that became cuppy in drawing without intermediate annealing. Differences of opinion are current among the manufacturers of wire and in the literature (see bibliography at end of paper), some believing that the source of the trouble lies in segregation in the wire rod, oxides, sulfides, slag, etc.; others that the trouble is created by an unevenness of stress distribution across the section of the wire, usually thought of as being a function of die shape. All of the published work is of a qualitative rather than a quantitative nature. With this in mind, it was deemed advisable to make a study of the shape of the wire-drawing dies, as well as the oxygen content of the copper to be drawn. Experimental After several methods were tried, it was found that by studying the contour of the butt-end of the rod after drawing a measure of the "working" across the section of the wire could be made. The butt-end of the annealed rod was not sheared but was sawed off. The end was then smoothed with a fine file so that the plane of filing was perpendicular to the drawing axis. It is to be noted that this method is not an absolute measure of the distribution of cold working but is a very good indicative means of studying comparative values. The method of examining a tension break in wire was found to be the most sensitive in detecting cuppiness. Other methods, such as microscopic examination of longitudinal sections, X-ray radiographic studies, etching away of outer layers with nitric acid, and fracture by bending, can all be used to identify cuppy wire but the tension break will give the fracture characteristic of cuppiness before any of the other methods can

Jan 1, 1930

By Van Dyne Howbert, Fred E. Gray

The Presidio mine of The American Metal Co. of Texas is situated 45 miles south of Marfa, Texas, a town on the Southern Pacific R. R., and lies approximately 20 miles north of the Mexican border. Communication with the railroad is maintained over a state highway. All supplies for mine and mill are hauled in by truck from Marfa and precipitates and concentrates are freighted to the railroad by the same means and shipped to Selby and El Paso, respectively. The mill is at the town of Shafter, 1 mile from the mine and at approximately 350 ft. lower elevation. The ore is conveyed to it by an aerial tramway which requires practically no power on account of the difference in elevation. The mill is a countercurrent decantation cyanide and gravity concentrating plant of 200 tons daily capacity. Coarse and fine crushing are done at the mill. Two neal-by shallow wells in the bed of Cibolo Creek furnish an abundance of water. Power is generated for the mill and town by a Diesel engine plant. Ore Treated The ore is oxidized and siliceous. The greater part contains approximately 16 oz. of silver per ton, but mixed with this are many particles of ore of much higher grade, assaying in many instances 100 oz. or more. In the 16-oz. material there is an almost constant amount of silver which is difficult to recover by cyanidation. The high-grade material contains a much greater proportion of silver which is easily amenable to cyanide treatment. Thus, as the grade of ore becomes higher, the percentage of recovery of silver increases rapidly, under equal milling conditions. The silver minerals contained in the ore are principally argentite and cerargyrite, the former predominating The lead minerals, all of which are argentiferous, are chiefly cerussite and galena, with occasionally a little anglesite. The gold is free; most of the ore contains merely a trace

Jan 1, 1935

By C. H. Brehaut, W. N. Taylor, R. S. Douglas, H. A. Shannon

THE name for this new method of mining is derived from a composition of Horizontal, Radial, Diamond, and the drilling is from raises. This method, worked out at Copper Mountain, B.C., is believed to be distinct in many features from other known methods. GEOLOGY The ore deposits of Copper Mountain are related to the Copper Mountain stock, which is an ideal example of the magmatic differentiation in that it grades from a basic gabbro at the border to an almost pure orthoclase-pegmatite core. The "contact" ore bodies lie along the contact of the gabbro and an older complex of volcanics and sediment termed the "Wolfe Creek" formation. These older rocks, collectively referred to as greenstone, had been fractured prior to the intrusion of the stock and were highly metamorphosed during the intrusion. The "outlying" ore bodies are somewhat different in character, though a similar structural pattern prevails. It is believed that a deep-seated magma of which the Copper Mountain stock is a part has given off solutions that caused a partial granitization of some of the volcanics. Mining problems are caused further by the presence of a series of soft barren dikes intersecting a great many of the ore bodies, which are about 30 ft. wide, strike north-south, and dip at a high angle to the east; and are further increased by the presence of four major faults, with a great many minor faults running at acute angles from them. Fault zones average 8 ft. in width, and consist of gouge and breccia. They strike northeast and dip steeply to the northwest. The faults cut through the ore zones and the dikes, and continue on into the gabbro. The general mine structure with two types of ore bodies, bounded by weak walls and intersected by several series of soft barren dikes and major faults, indicated that a method of mining should be devised that would remove the ore at low cost with the least disturbance of the waste walls and dikes. THEORETICAL ESTIMATE OF STOPING WITH THE DIAMOND DRILL After consideration of various methods, the most suitable one appeared to be horizontal drilling to break the ore in a manner similar to shrinkage stoping. Drilling vertical holes or rings from a bench and breaking to an open slot was eliminated because the weak walls of ore, dike or waste would not permit this type of opening. It was then decided to drill either horizontal radial holes from a raise or parallel holes from a slot cut across the ore body. After discussion, the latter method was believed unsuitable, for the following reasons:

Jan 1, 1945

By T. L. Fritzlen

EXTRUSION of aluminum alloys in this country is performed mainly by direct extrusion, therefore this paper is confined only to factors affecting the rate of extrusion by this method. Many factors affect the rate of extrusion of aluminum alloys. It is the purpose of this paper to present a discussion on the factors that are subject to technical control. Most of them are closely related, so that a clear-cut distinction between them is rather difficult. However, an attempt will be made to evaluate the effect of each factor separately, as far as possible. The most important factors only will be considered, and these will be discussed in detail under three general headings: (I) characteristics of the equipment, (2) size and structure of the ingot, and (3) temperature of ingot, cylinder, and other parts. It is a well established fact' that the pressure and the speed of extrusion are related and are exponential functions of one another. Therefore, whenever a certain condition tends, for instance, to increase the pressure required for extrusion, it will reduce the extrusion speed if the pressure is maintained constant. For this reason, in this paper the effect of various conditions is expressed either in regard to their effect on the pressure required or the extrusion speed. Another established fact is the relationship between the temperature of the material being extruded and the pressure required to extrude. According to Schishokin,2 this relationship is of the exponential type, and as the temperature is increased the pressure required is decreased. It would seem from the preceding that the greatest rates of extrusion can be obtained by the use of higher temperatures. However, as is well known, other factors intervene to limit the rate of extrusion of aluminum alloys when increasing the temperature. These factors will be discussed in detail later. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EQUIPMENT The capacity of the press determines the maximum unitary pressure that can be applied for any given cylinder diameter. Pressures used for extrusion of aluminum alloys range from approximately 50,000 lb. per sq. in. to 150,000 lb. per sq. in., dependent upon the alloy and the size of the shape extruded. Higher pressures could be used to advantage, but existing steels limit pressures employed in the production of extrusions. Numerous mechanical characteristics of the extrusion press affect extrusion rate. The most important characteristics of the press itself are: (I) sensitivity of the main pressure valve and accuracy of pressure gauges, (2) accuracy of equipment to heat the cylinder uniformly and to control cylinder temperature, and (3) accuracy of means of measuring the speed of extrusion. The variables subject to control during the extrusion operation are pressure, temperature, and speed, and it is evident that the preceding characteristics

Jan 1, 1945

Ore deposits of commercial grade are local concentrations of great rarity when considered in relation to the area of unmineralized land surfaces, and they must therefore be considered as the products of exceptional and complex conditions. The data collected from a great number of individual deposits are sufficient to permit certain broad generalizations in regard to the conditions favorable to ore deposition which even numerous exceptions do not invalidate. The broadest general relation of ore deposits is with intrusive rocks, and while there are notable exceptions, the great majority of ore deposits have a visible or closely inferred connection with intrusive rock masses. Conditions that permit the dissipation of the ore-bearing vehicles do not permit the concentration of metals in deposits; the prime factor to consider in this connection is that structural conditions must be such as tend to concentrate and not to dissipate the ore-bearing solutions. The disadvantage of extrusive rocks is at once apparent; any metals the magma may have contained are dissipated at the surface and are lost; with the exception of tiny vugs and cracks in quickly cooled flows, no concentrations of metals are known in extrusive rocks, and the lack of confinement and quick cooling apparently do not permit extrusives to exert mineralizing effect upon the rocks with which they come in contact. The close mineralogical similarity between extrusives and intrusives, and the great difference in mineralizing power is a proof of the ease with which magmas part with their metallic content, and of the mobility of the ore-bearing vehicles in comparison with the parent magma.

Jan 1, 1932

By A. E. Bellis

ROBERT J. ANDERSON, Cleveland, Ohio (communication to the Secretary *).-The paper by Messrs. Bellis and Hardy was interesting to me and has led me to make a few remarks concerning some of the points brought out. The question of employing correct hardening temperatures is one that is sadly neglected, particularly in many large plants that forge and treat their machine tools for private use. As is most aptly remarked in this paper, "The custom of using one, high-speed temperature for all tools is very poor practice;" still, such practice is more common than otherwise. An instance came to my attention some time ago, in connection with some work with the standardization of high-speed steels for machine tools, where there were no less than six different brands of alloy steels being used for machine tools such as lathe, shaper, planer, boring mill and cutters of like nature. All of these different steels received identical heat and forging treatment-or at least that was the aim of the tool hardener. That the results were highly unsatisfactory goes without saying. That the hardening department of many plants is conducted on a rule-of-thumb fashion is the reason for a great deal of the trouble and disappointment which seems to be the lot of many tool-steel users. Exceedingly crude execution is the rule rather than the exception, and it is no small wonder that the results are as good as they sometimes happen to be. It would seem that at the present price of alloy steels the subject should receive a closer scrutiny by purchasers than it does. One not familiar with the workings of souse plants that disdain to lend an ear to scientific heat treatment would scarcely give credence to some of the methods employed, not only in the treatment of the steel but also in its selection and purchase. Heating for hardening should be conducted under close pyrometric control only after the correct hardening temperature has been determined.

Jan 3, 1917

By A. M. Gaudin, A. F. Taggart

Flotation of ores is a practical utilization of the energy that resides in the surfaces of solids and liquids. The best known manifestation of this energy is called surface tension; an equally important, though less apparent, phenomenon is adsorption. This paper reviews some of the recent investigations of these phenomena, and gives the results of certain experiments performed by the authors. Surface tension is a manifestation of energy having its seat at the bounding surface between the adjacent phases of a multiphase system. Thus, at the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between two immiscible liquids, or between a solid and a gas or a liquid, there are forces capable of doing work, their magnitude depending on the nature of the adjacent phases and the extent of the bounding area. These surface forces are inappreciable when the ratio of surface to volume of the adjacent phases is small, but they become powerful when this ratio becomes large, as it does when one of the phases is highly dispersed. Froth flotation, which consists in buoying solids heavier than water to the surface of water by means of gas bubbles, utilizes the force of surface tension to attach the solid particles to the gas bubbles and again to maintain the floating mass of bubbles as a more or less persistent froth at the surface of a pulp for a sufficiently long time to allow its removal. It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the potential energy of a system in equilibrium is a minimum. Therefore a multiphase system, tending toward equilibrium, will arrange itself in such a way that the total energy of the interfaces will be the least possible. This end can be accomplished in two ways: by a change in shape that will reduce the interfacial area; by a change in the nature of the surface layer in

Jan 1, 1923

By A. F. Taggart, A. M. Gaudin

Flotation of ores is a practical utilization of the energy that resides in the surfaces of solids and liquids. The best known manifestation of this energy is called surface tension; an equally important, though less apparent, phenomenon is adsorption. This paper reviews some of the recent investigations of these phenomena, and gives the results of certain experiments performed by the authors. Surface tension is a manifestation of energy having its seat at the bounding surface between the adjacent phases of a multiphase system. Thus, at the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between two immiscible liquids, or between a solid and a gas or a liquid, there are forces capable of doing work, their magnitude depending on the nature of the adjacent phases and the extent of the bounding area. These surface forces are inappreciable when the ratio of surface to volume of the adjacent phases is small, but they become powerful when this ratio becomes large, as it does when one of the phases is highly dispersed. Froth flotation, which consists in buoying solids heavier than water to the surface of water by means of gas bubbles, utilizes the force of surface tension to attach the solid particles to the gas bubbles and again to maintain the floating mass of bubbles as a more or less persistent froth at the surface of a pulp for a sufficiently long time to allow its removal. It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the potential energy of a system in equilibrium is a minimum. Therefore a multiphase system, tending toward equilibrium, will arrange itself in such a way that the total energy of the interfaces will be the least possible. This end can be accomplished in two ways: by a change in shape that will reduce the interfacial area; by a change in the nature of the surface layer in

Jan 1, 1923