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By C. S. Matthews, H. M. Girner, C. D. Williams, M. J. Edwardson, H. R. Parkison

Quantitative interpretation of electric logs requires knowledge of formation temperature. In this paper, methods are developed for computing changes in formation temperature caused by circulation of mud during drilling operations. The basis of the method is the mathematical solution of the differential equation of heat conduction. The solution of this equation is presented in a series of graphs. These graphs are used to determine formation temperature disturbance at various radii for arbitrary mud circulation histories. Example comparisons with field results show reasonable agreement. It is concluded that, in general, the temperature disturbances caused by circulating mud are small beyond 10 ft from the wellbore but are quite significant near the wellbore. INTRODUCTION Quantitative interpretation of electric logs requires knowledge of the formation temperature in order to establish the resistivity of the formation water with accuracy. To determine the formation temperature, the temperature disturbances produced by circulating drilling mud must be evaluated. -The objective of this investigation was to develop a method for the numerical determination of these temperature disturbances at any distance from the wellbore as a function of time. The first step was to solve the differential equation describing the temperature behavior in the formation during and after mud circulation. This solution was used to calculate a series of curves relating temperature disturbance to shut-in time for various circulating periods. An "exact" method for computing formation temperatures with the use of these temperature-disturbance plots is described, and the results of an application of this method to a well in Montana are presented. Procedures for approximating formation temperatures are also discussed. BASIC EQUATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS With the assumptions that (1) cylindrical symmetry exists, with the borehole as the axis, (2) heat flow is 1. The formation can be treated as though it is radially infinite and homogeneous in extent, as regards heat flow. 2. The presence of mud cake can be disregarded. 3. The effect of heat generated by bit action is negligible. 4. After mud circulation ceases, the rate of radial heat flow at the wellbore is negligible and is assumed zero for purposes of calculating temperature change with time. These assumptions are believed to be reasonable because of the agreement achieved between calculated and measured borehole temperature in a well, to be discussed later. Further, the agreement at the wellbore indicates that temperatures in the formation were also approximately correct. since it is the formation temperatures that determine wellbore temperature after ceasing circulations SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATION The solution of Eq. 2 for the temperature behavior during and after a single period of mud circulation is

By C. R. Kuzell

INTRODUCTION KNOWLEDGE of the thermal capacity of gases is of great importance in making metallurgical calculations. The metallurgist is, frequently called upon to investigate and determine furnace efficiencies in which the heat carried into or out of the furnace by gases is a large item in the heat balance. Not only do such problems present themselves in the determination of furnace efficiency, but also in the study of the application of heat is accessory apparatus, such as stoves, regenerators, waste-heat boilers, driers,.etc. The thermal effect of the use of excess air in the combustion of fuel, the theoretical temperatures of combustion, the quantity of heat in hot blast at various temperatures, the effect of hot blast on furnace temperatures, are a few more examples of frequently occurring calorific problems involving gases. So many are the applications of the data on the heat capacity of gases that the subject merits careful study. The heat in a gas maybe due to its heat of combustion, if it is a combustible gas, and to its temperature. The latter is called its sensible heat and is the heat absorbed or evolved by a gas as its temperature is raised or lowered. The heat of combustion of gases is well established and is commonly known. The values can be found in almost any mcdern treatise on metallurgy. The sensible heat of gases has not been so well established because it is in most cases a function of the temperature, and the values of specific heats of gases over a wide range of temperatures have only recently been determined. It is the purpose of this paper to deal with the sensible heat of gases.

Jan 8, 1914

By T. D. Teimann, R. L. Stone

The rate of extraction of silica from certain Wisconsin and Minnesota taconites was investigated by autoclave digestion in sodium hydroxide solutions over the temperature range from 296° to 416°F. Rates obtained were from 7 to 254 g mol per cm2 per sec giving activation energies from 15,000 to 19.000 cal per mol. Activation energy was found to increase with increase of sodium hydroxide concentration. Digestion of different forms of quartz indicated the rate of extraction to be solely a function of surface area under similar conditions of digestion. The results of an experimental investigation on the caustic extraction of silica from certain Wisconsin and Minnesota taconites were presented in a recent publication.' It was shown that residual concentrates containing as much as 65% iron can be produced by this method. The occurrence of silica as a micro-crystalline variety of quartz with high specific surface area gave correspondingly high mean rates of extraction in solutions of sodium hydroxide. The present paper extends this previous work by presenting the results of a study of the specific rates of extraction of silica from these ores as related to temperature, sodium hydroxide concentration and variety of quartz. Calculated activation energies for the dissolution of silica are presented and some possible mechanisms are discussed. TACONITES The low-grade siliceous iron ores investigated included taconite from the Wisconsin Gogebic range and a semi-taconite2 from the Minnesota Mesabi range. These are adequately described in the former paper1 and by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. The principal iron minerals are hematite (Fe2O3) and goethite (Fe2O3 . H2O), while the gangue is essentially a microcrystalline variety of quartz. Minor amounts of other minerals are present. Typical analyses show the Wisconsin taconite to contain approximately 28% Fe and 54% SiO2 and the Minnesota semi-taconite 39% Fe and 39% SiO2. Analyses of the actual samples used are given in Table I. The taconite samples were prepared for digestion by reducing the original ore to minus 200 mesh in a Braun pulverizer. QUARTZ Three varieties of quartz were studied in the investigation: Ottawa sand, chert and chalcedony. The Ottawa sand was obtained from the Ottawa Silica Co. The chert and chalcedony came from Wards Natural Science Establishment. A minus 200 plus 400 mesh fraction of the Ottawa sand, used as a surface area standard, was repeatedly washed in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid followed by distilled water before autoclaving. The other two varieties were used directly after grinding through 200 mesh in a laboratory hammer mill. Analyses of these samples appear in Table 11. Microscopic examination of the silica samples by the oil immersion method showed that the Ottawa sand consisted of clean, uniform spheres of quartz with little deviation in size from a mean diameter of 82µ determined by a distribution count. The other two varieties consisted almost entirely of microcrystalline aggregates of quartz crystals; the aggregates ranged from 10 to 70µ. The individual crystals in the chert aggregates were estimated to be of the order of

Jan 1, 1964

By C. S. Barrett, O. R. Trautz

PREVIOUS investigations have shown that lithium is body-centered cubic from near its melting point to the temperature of liquid air1,2,3 Nevertheless there was an incentive to search again for a transformation at low temperatures: C. Zener4,5 has remarked that the low value of the elastic modulus (11 - C12)/2 of body-centered cubic metals and alloys implies a rapid increase in free energy with decreasing temperature, which would favor the occurrence of a transformation; also the shear movement to which this modulus applies is one that can transform a body-centered cubic structure into a slightly distorted face-centered cubic structure. It was confirmed that lithium does not transform spontaneously at liquid nitrogen temperature, but it was found that a transformation can be induced at this temperature by cold working the metal,6 and at slightly lower temperatures a different transformation occurs spontaneously. Transformations were also found in solid solutions of magnesium in lithium. THE NATURE OF THE TRANSFORMATIONS Before presenting a detailed treatment of the technique used and the specific data obtained, it would be well to give a brief survey of the general characteristics of the transformations. A new crystal structure begins to form spontaneously in a specimen when it is cooled below a critical temperature. In lithium the structure appears to be close-packed hexagonal; in the Li-Mg alloys most of the diffraction lines (but not all) are near those for hexagonal lithium. The transformation proceeds as the temperature is lowered and soon stops if the temperature is held constant or raised. The course of the transformation on cooling is indicated by the curve at the lower left of Fig I. This curve is drawn in stepped fashion because the transformation goes by discrete steps with audible clicks. Because of the similarity to the decomposition of austenite into martensite in steels, it seems appropriate to designate the beginning of the spontaneous transformation on cooling as the Ms point. On heating to room temperature after the low temperature treatment only the usual BCC structure is found. On heating, the low temperature modification begins to disappear at a temperature which will be designated as Ac. The transformation on heating is halted when the rise in temperature is halted. The temperature must be raised 40 to 50°C above Ac before the reversion is complete-an interval which is sensitive to the rate of heating and to the time of holding at temperatures above Ac. This behavior on heating thus has similarities also to the formation of martensite in the cooling of steels.

Jan 1, 1948

By L. M. Howe, J. Gordon Parr, E. Saarema

THE decreasing solid solubility limit at the titanium-rich end of the Ti-Cu constitutional diagram,' Fig. 1, suggests the possibility that titanium-rich alloys may be age-hardenable. However, results obtained by Holden et al. reproduced in Fig. 2 show that after quenching from 790°C the age-hardening of an alloy containing 1.7 pet Cu is very slight, while a 0.8 pet alloy decreases in hardness, during heat treatment at 400°C. It was believed possible that powder samples of alloys might show different results from the lump samples used by Holden et al., since small particles are often more sensitive to diffusion processes than larger samples. Consequently, a 1.9 pet (by weight) Cu alloy was made by the technique of levitation melting," checked for homogeneity, and filings of 48-65 Tyler screen size were cut from it for aging experiments. The filings were helium-quenched (by a technique described previously)' from 790°C, sealed in vacuo in silica tubes and aged at temperatures of 400°, 450°, and 500°C. Microscopic and X-ray examinations failed to reveal any structural changes during the aging process. This is not too surprising since early stages of precipitation do not usually manifest themselves in ways that are readily detectable by metallographic methods, and the extent of precipitation on overaging a 1.9 pet alloy is very small. However, hardness readings (taken on a Bergs-man micro hardness tester, using a 25 g load applied to a diamond indenter) do show a hardness peak at each aging temperature, Fig. 3. About a dozen readings were taken on each heat treated sample; the highest reading and the lowest reading were ignored and an average taken of the remaining values. In

Jan 1, 1957

By H. Cecil Spicer

THE results described in this article are based on field work conducted during the periods April-May, 1939, and May-July, 1940. The United States Potash Co. is mining potash on Government land under a permit from the Department of the Interior and the geophysical investigation was completed under a cooperative arrangement made between that company and the Conservation Branch of the Geological Survey. The writer, a member of the Section of Chemistry and Physics of the Geologic Branch, was assigned to this investigation. Four definite objectives were in mind for the geophysical work in the studies over the salt deposits. The first was to determine the measure of success that could be attained in this type of work with the resistivity methods that were to be employed. These methods had been introduced into the work of the Conservation Branch by Benjamin E. Jones for the investigation of dam sites, and have been used under his direction by the author for such work. If the method proved to be applicable, an effort was to be made to contour the top of the salt beds and also the other formation boundaries known to be present in this area. Salt-water aquifers were to be studied in an effort to determine their boundaries, and an attempt was to be made to delineate the potash-bearing beds. EARLIER STUDIES Others have made, and reported, resistivity studies over saliferous deposits in different areas. Friedel1 and Messrs. Schlumberger2 reported geophysical work performed in the discovery of the salt domes of Alsace; Carrette and Kelly3described the geology of the same area. Leonardon and Kelly4 published a resistivity curve obtained over the Hettenschlag dome, and a further discussion of this same area was given by the Messrs. Schlumberger5 in a communication. Messrs. Alty6 described studies on salt deposits in which the single-probe method was used. Sinerez7 mentions that electrical methods were tried over salt deposits in Spain. Geoffrey and Charrin8 show a resistivity curve obtained over marl, gypsiferous marl and salt which is similar to that obtained over the New Mexico salt deposits. Kelly9 reported resistivity work performed with the ground comparator of Zuschlag over the salt deposits near Syracuse, N. Y., where the Salina formation is at a depth of 700 to 8oo ft. Some structural studies on the potash basin of Alsace are described by Poldini.10 Another single-probe resistivity study, made over salt deposits in New Mexico, is briefly described by Heiland,11 through the courtesy of Harry Aurand, of the Midwest Refining Co.

Jan 1, 1941

By Fred C., Bond

DETERMINATIONS of circulating load in a classifier operating in closed circuit with a grinding mill are usually made from screen analyses of the mill feed and classifier products. The percentage remaining on someone selected screen size must be used in the calculation, and, because of the wide variation in average particle size between the mill feed and classifier overflow, an accurate and representative result at the selected mesh is often difficult to obtain. To overcome this difficulty and reduce the time required in making the determination, I have devised a method which uses the liquid-solid relationship in the circuit rather than screen analyses. The quantities required for the calculation include only the usual dilution and feed tonnage measurements, which should be made regularly in the course of ordinary mill operation and, in addition, the amount of new water added to the classifier, or to the head of the mill with the new feed. If measurements are obtained on both of these quantities it is possible to check the calculated circulating load, and to calculate the percentage of moisture in the new feed to the mill; or, if the latter is known, to check the feed tonnage.

Jan 1, 1937

By E. T. Turkdogan, L. J. Martonik, R. J. Fruehan

Electrochemical measuretnents of the solid oxide electrolyte galvanic cells CY-Cr2O3 I ZrO2 (CaO) 1 O (in Fe alloy) CY-Cr2O3 I Tho2 (Y2O3)I O en Fe alloy) have been made at 1600°C (2912°F) in order to test the Performance of such cells at liquid steel temperatures. The oxygen pvobe (cell) consists of a disk of ZrO2 (CaO) or Tho2 (Y2O3) electrolyte fused at one end of a silica tube filled with a mixture of Cr-Cr2O3 which is the reference electrode. Upon immersion in liquid steel, the electromotive force readings achieve a steady value within a few seconds, and remain steady for 30 win or more. The perforwzance of the probes has been tested using Fe-O, Fe-Si-O, Fe-Cr-O, Fe-V-O, and Fe-Al-O alloys; the oxygen contents of liquid steel derived from the measured electromotive forces are in satisfactory agreement with those determined by arulysis. Use of the probe in the deoxi-datiorz of steel, in laboratory experiments, is discussed. The results indicate that there is insignificant electronic conductivity in ZrO2(CuO) at oxygen activities down to those corresponding to 10 ppm in steel. At lower oxygen activities, probes tipped with ThOn (Y2O3) disks perform satisfactorily at oxygen activities down to 1 ppm O or less. THE key to the control of deoxidation of steel is a sensing device to measure rapidly the concentration of oxygen in liquid steel in the furnace, ladle or tun-dish at any desired stage of deoxidation. The analysis of the cast steel by the neutron-activation or vacuum-fusion method gives total oxygen as oxide and silicate inclusions. This analysis is important for guidance to steel cleanliness; however, such a postmortem is of little value in the control of deoxidation of liquid steel. At the General Meeting of the American Iron and Steel Institute in New York, 1968, Turkdogan and Fruehan' presented a paper on the preliminary results of the work done in this laboratory on rapid determination of oxygen in steel by an oxygen probe. Details of the work done in this laboratory leading to the development of a galvanic cell for the determination of oxygen in liquid steel, and the results of the tests made are given in this paper. It was through Wagner's contributions, since the early Thirties, to the physical chemistry of semiconductors in general that it ultimately became possible to construct galvanic cells for application at high temperatures. In 1957, Kiukkola and wagner2 successfully demonstrated the use of several solid electrolytes in measuring the free energies of several chemical reactions, in particular, the use of lime-stabilized zir-conia in high-temperature oxidation reactions. Starting 7 years later, a number of papers appeared in the technical literature3-' demonstrating possible applicability of galvanic cells for the determination of oxygen in liquid steel. In the earliest work, Japanese investigators3j4 experimented with various types of reference electrodes, e.g., graphite-saturated liquid iron at 1 atm CO or Ni-NiO mixtures; the results obtained, though promising, were not of sufficient accuracy. Except for the work of Baker and West,6 all other investigators5,7,8 showed that ZrO2(CaO) electrolyte could be used for this purpose. The main part of the galvanic cell used by Fischer and ~ckermann' and by schwerdtfeger7 (the latter work was done in this laboratory), consisted of a ZrO2(CaO) tube, -1 cm ID, closed at one end, with a platinum contact wire fixed mechanically inside the closed end. The tube was flushed with a gas of known oxygen partial pressure, e.g., air, CO-CO2 or H2-CO2 mixtures; gas along with the platinum lead wire served as the reference electrode. The oxygen contents derived from measured electromotive forces agreed reasonably well with the oxygen contents determined by vacuum-fusion analysis. It is evident from recent investigations that the electromotive force technique using a solid oxide electrolyte is fundamentally well suited for the determination of oxygen in liquid steel. However, it is equally clear that the cell arrangement of the type as commonly used is in need of considerable improvement, as it exhibits several shortcomings for industrial and even laboratory use. 1) Because of its size, the zirconia tube, though stabilized, has a poor resistance to thermal shock. 2) Fine pores and microcracks, which are invariably present in zirconia tubes, are detrimental to the satisfactory operation of the cell, particularly when gas reference electrodes are used. 3) Air or carbon dioxide reference electrodes give rise to high electromotive force readings; as a result, the determination of oxygen in steel becomes less accurate. For higher accuracy, the oxygen partial pressure of the reference electrode should be in the range similar to that of oxygen in steel. 4) Even in laboratory experiments, difficulties are experienced when flushing the tube with gases and maintaining the proper gas flow rate. Fischer and Ackermann,' who used air as the reference electrode, reported that when the flow rate was too low, furnace gases would leak into the electrolyte tube, therefore lowering the oxygen potential and measured electromotive force. The required flow rate in order to avoid leakage depended on the tightness of the electrolyte tube which varied with different tubes, thus making it difficult to predict in advance the required flow rate. However, if the flow rate is too high the inside wall of the electrolyte tube would be cooler than the wall

Jan 1, 1970

By E. F. Kingsbury

ONE of the well-known and important uses of the noble or precious metals has been for electrical contacts. In fact, the elements of this group, comprising gold, silver and. the six platinum metals, have been called "noble" because of their ability to resist heat and corrosion, properties which. were early found to be of importance in good contacts. Of these, platinum and its iridium alloys, palladium, and silver, have been extensively used. In recent years the electrical industry has been responsible for about one-eighth of the total consumption of the platinum metals in the United States. Information is not available as to what part of this one-eighth has been used for contacts but it is certainly an important one. SUBSTITUTES FOR PLATINUM During the past 20 years a considerable number of contact alloys have been proposed in the patent literature largely with the aim of more or less replacing platinum by gold or silver, and some of these alloys are finding increasingly widespread application as the reliability of their performance becomes established. From even the partial data at hand it appears that this substitution by the less precious metals has replaced at least one-half of the amount of platinum that the entire electrical industry would otherwise be consuming at the present time. While the subject is of considerable interest to the metallurgist it is even more so to the electrical engineer and it is surprising that the literature records no systematic and' comprehensive investigation along these lines. Practically all the scattered work on noble metal contacts has centered around platinum as a standard and has had two more or less distinct aims. One of these has been the replacement of platinum by cheaper materials, and the other, the development of materials of superior electrical performance. The merit, of a contact metal has been assumed to be dependent on its infusibility, and since the more precious metals have the higher melting points there has naturally been an association of the two qualities in the sense that the more precious were

Jan 1, 1928

By F. P. Nichols, F. A. Renninger

At one time, mineral aggregates were considered physically and chemically inert substances whose junction was that of an inex-pensive, easily obtainable source of bulk. This philosophy applied regardless of the use to which the aggregate was put. Research approaches dealing only with such gross physical properties as hardness, toughness, impact resistance, etc., dominated the early growth years of the industry and influenced specifications to a large extent. The accelerated pace of highway construction, which began toward the end of the depression years, focused attention on the need for extensive aggregate research. The realization in the early 1940's that aggregates interacted chemically as well as physically with their environment provided the stimulus necessary to translate the drab, systematic aggregate technology of the early 20th century into the changing, dynamic, challenging field it is today. Current research problems are discussed in detail. These efforts being pursued by contract research organizations, universities, governmental agencies, and industry transcend many fields. The mineral aggregate industry is the world's largest mining and processing endeavor, yet it is graced with little of the romance or public awareness that accompanies mention of gold, silver, iron, copper, uranium, or aluminum mining efforts. Much of this reaction is undoubtedly due to the fact that the uses to which crushed stone and sand and gravel are normally put are not fully recognized or appreciated by the general public. Almost 2 billion tons of mineral aggregates are quarried or mined, processed, and sold yearly in the United States alone.= The largest uses to which this vast tonnage is subjected are as ingredients of portland-cement concrete, bituminous concrete, and dense-graded aggregate-base course mixtures in the highway and building construction fields, two industries closely related to the expenditure of public funds. It is for these uses, partially in justification for the expenditures of vast sums of public funds, that mineral aggregate research truly finds its emphasis. The research efforts expended relative to the highway and building construction uses to which mineral aggregates are subjected are those of primary concern to the industry. These efforts, while of direct consequence to the industry due to the volume market represented, are of interest as well to public agencies, universities, and contract research firms. All actively conduct research, exchange information, and make contributions to the overall knowledge relative to aggregate usage and limitations. The research efforts of the mineral aggregate industry is the subject to be discussed throughout this paper. It covers all aspects of highway and building design, construction, and technology. The effects of research pertaining to quarrying and mining methods, blasting and processing techniques, storage and handling facilities, and equipment employment and development have left their mark on the crushed stone and sand and gravel industries. Such specialized efforts have resulted in dramatically increased production rates which in turn have served to keep costs, and hence prices, down. Despite the many inflationary pressures over the years, the cost of a ton of aggregate today is little more than it was 25 or 30 years ago. Mention is made of these efforts simply to emphasize the diversity of research in the mineral aggregate field. The remainder of this paper focuses on the complexity of what might be termed "product knowledge" research.

Jan 1, 1971

By G. R. Fitterer

NONMETALLIC inclusions in steel have received much attention by metallurgists during the past few years. Many investigators have been emphatic in stating their belief that these impurities are the chief causes of steel failures, while others think that their effects are negligible. One of the main reasons that definite information on the effects of these impurities is lacking is that no reliable method has been developed for the exact determination of the amounts of these different impurities in steel. Some valuable new information has been brought out by a reliable method for nonmetallic inclusions which has been developed at the Pittsburgh Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the Metallurgical Advisory Board. This procedure satisfactorily extracts some of the more common inclusions from steels, thus enabling the investigator to correlate steel failures with inclusion content. Although the data given herein are the first to be published on the subject of the electrolytic extraction method, the interest in the subject is evidenced by the fact that it is already being used by some 20 to 30 steel companies for their various purposes. Some of the comments received from these laboratories indicate that the method is highly satisfactory: the unfavorable comments, when traced to their sources, have been found to be based on some small mistake made in either installation or operation. The chief discrepancy seems to have occurred in attempts to apply the method to the extraction of inclusions from alloy steels. The procedure can be used only for the plain carbon steels and for such low alloy steels as those containing the usual amount of copper (0.2 to 0.3 per cent). Steels containing the carbide-forming alloys such as chromium, tungsten, etc., present far too many difficulties for the accurate determination of inclusions. Luckily, the iron and manganese carbides do not offer any difficulties and no contamination of the oxide-sulfide residue results. It is highly probable that some modification of the following

Jan 1, 1931

By J. L. Taylor, P. Duwez

The phase boundaries in the ternary system Ti-Cr-Al have been established at 1800° and 1400°F for alloys containing more than 60 pct Ti. The martensite transformation temperature has been measured for the titanium-rich alloys. THE studies of binary alloys of titanium with the transition elements which have been published so far1-0 ndicate clearly that the solubility of these elements is always much greater in the high temperature body-centered cubic form of titanium (ß phase) than in the low temperature hexagonal form. In this category of alloying elements are iron, nickel, chromium, manganese, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, and tantalum. Although studies of the nontransition elements have been rather limited, early work on titanium binary alloys'" has shown that most of them were not very soluble in the a form, with the exception of aluminum, for which the solubility in a is about 25 pct.13, 12 In addition to this large solubility in a, aluminum is also soluble in ß titanium to the extent of about 35 pct and the transformation temperature from ß to a is raised with aluminum content. This effect is also typical of aluminum, in contrast with that found for the transition elements which lower the ß to a transformation temperature. Therefore, it may be anticipated that tprnarv titanium alloys with aluminum and any one of the transition elements will constitute a class of ternary alloys having characteristic features absent in alloys involving two transition elements. Chromium was chosen as a typical transition element for the present study because ternary alloys of Ti-Al-Cr commercially produced have been found to possess very interesting physical properties (MST-3 pct A1-5 pct Cr of Mallory-Sharon).'" Binary Systems The binary systems Ti-A1 and Ti-Cr have been established recently by several investigators. The data used in this investigation were taken from the complete diagram of Bumps, Kessler, and Hansen." This diagram agrees quite well with earlier investigations." For the Ti-Cr system, the phase boundaries at 1800" and 1400°F were taken from refs. 6 and 7. The binary system Cr-A1 has been studied recently by Bradley." This system is rather complex and contains not less than seven intermediate phases. The present study was limited to the titanium corner of the ternary system (less than a total of 40 pct Cr plus Al) and none of the phases present in the Cr-A1 binary alloys were found in the ternary alloys investigated. Experimental Technique Microscopic observation and X-ray diffraction measurements were used to identify phases and de-

Jan 1, 1954

All the TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS and CONTRIBUTIONS published in 1939 are available at Institute headquarters, unless otherwise noted. They are also on file in many public, university and technical libraries and, when so indicated in the list, may be found in the TRANSACTIONS. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS in Classes A-Metal Mining, B-Milling and Concen-tration, H-Industrial Minerals, and ;I-Mining Geology are distributed in MINING TECHNOLOGY, which is issued every other month. Technical Publications in Classes C-Iron. and Steel Division, D-Nonferrous Metallurgy and E-Institute of Metals Division are distributed in METALS TECHNOLOGY, which is issued twice quarterly. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS in Class G-Petroleum Division are distributed in PETRO-LEUM TECHNOLOGY, which is issued quarterly. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS in Classes F-Coal Division, J-Mineral Industry Education Division, K-Mining Administra-tion, and L-Geophysical Methods of Exploration are issued as separate pamphlets. An Institute member is entitled to one copy of any TECHNICAL PUBLICATION or CON-TRIBUTION. Copies of TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS listed have been mailed to members of the Institute according to their registration by classes. CONTRIBUTIONS and Other TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS will be sent upon request. A member relay purchase an additional copy of a TECHNICAL PUBLICATION Or a CONTRIBUTION at One cent a page; minimum charge, 25¢. Nonmembers may purchase any CONTRIBUTION or a TECHNICAL PUBLICATION Of the F, J, K, or L classes at the same rate, but the nonmember price per copy for METALS TECHNOLOGY, MINING TECHNOLOGY or PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY is $1. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS (separate pamphlet form), $2 per annum; Canadian and foreign postage 50 cents extra. METALS TECHNOLOGY, $7 per annum; Canadian and foreign postage 50 cents extra (Iron and Steel Division and Institute of Metals Division ferrous and nonferrous papers). MINING TECHNOLOGY, $6 per annum; Canadian and foreign postage 50 cents extra (metal mining, milling and concentration, Industrial Minerals Division, and mining geology papers). PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, $4 per annum; Canadian and foreign postage 50 cents extra. Bound volumes have been mailed to members that have requested them, and MINING AND METALLURGY is mailed each month. A member is entitled to one volume a year on his membership and lie may purchase for $2.50 one copy of a volume not already received; additional copies of 'the same volume, $5. Nonmembers may pur-chase the volumes listed, at $5 each, plus 60 cents for Canadian or foreign postage. Extra single copies of MINING AND METALLURGY, 25¢ current issue, back numbers 500 each to members; to nonmembers 50¢ current issue and $1 each, back issues. Subscription price to nonmembers and to members for extra copies, $3 per annum plus $1 for Canadian or foreign postage.

Jan 1, 1939

By Albert Brokaw

THE so-called ?paraffin dirt" of the Gulf Coast oil fields has been con¬sidered an indication of the possible presence of oil and gas, and not a few wells have been brought in solely on the basis of such evidence. In a sense, it may be empirically justified as evidence of the presence of oil or gas, though it cannot be said to be infallible. If the writer is correctly informed, its association with oil and gas was pointed out by Lee Hager some years ago, and while it is commonly mentioned by geologists and operators in conversation, no discussion seems to have found its way into print. The present interpretation is based on laboratory study rather than on field investigation, and is put forth with the hope of stimulating discussion which shall lead to more complete understanding. The term "paraffin dirt" has been applied to soils with a peculiar texture, which has been described' as "curdy" or "rubbery." When moist, the material breaks much after the fashion of "green" cheese. It is rubbery under compression, but does not resemble rubber in tenacity or cohesion. When dry, the material ranges from hard clods to a horny mass of high tensile strength. The shrinkage in drying is very great, especially in the hornlike matter. The moist material ranges in color from dark brown in the specimens rich in organic matter to grayish in specimens containing more inorganic matter. All of the specimens studied were readily attacked by molds, which in some cases grew in great profusion on the samples. Samples exhibited a rather characteristic "swampy" or "mucky" odor when wet, and a characteristic odor of humic soils when moist.

Jan 4, 1918

By S. N. Kesten, Richard Murphy, A. H. Land, W. F. James

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,' to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By W. F. James, Richard Murphy, S. N. Kesten, A. H. Land

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,' to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

Report of the Secretary TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND THE MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN INSTI¬TUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS GENTLEMEN As will be shown by the special reports of the Finance, Membership, Library, Papers and Publications, Increase of Membership, and other standing Committees, together with that of the Treasurer, the year 1927 was one in which the Institute made very satisfactory progress in a number of directions. In total numbers the membership is no larger but in revenue from dues there has been a marked increase. This has been due to the promotion to full membership of Junior Associates of earlier years, to the larger proportion that come in originally as members rather than juniors, and to the keener interest in the work of the Institute reflected in prompter payment of dues. The latter is important, since experience shows that of those who fall behind a large number must ultimately be dropped for non-payment. Conditions in the mining in¬dustries have been healthy though not booming. It has been much easier for members to find employment and meet their financial obligations but there has not been that flow of young men into mining, and hence in part into the Institute, that characterized certain earlier years. Rather the tendency toward centralization and larger industrial units has re¬stricted the number, though not the scope, of opportunities for technical men in the mineral industries. The Institute is constantly receiving resignations from members crowded out of mining into other lines of activity. On the other hand, those who remain in mining and metal¬lurgy have a greatly increased necessity for information and contacts with technology. A few years ago many superintendents and most foremen were non-technical men. Today the reverse rule obtains and shift bosses and men who occupy even lower positions in industrial units are called upon to know and to apply such an amount of technical knowl¬edge that graduate engineers are the rule rather than the exception. The curious situation has obtained that with a much smaller enrollment of students in the schools of mining and metallurgy there has been at times an actual shortage of young engineers for beginners' jobs. The young men retort that the conditions of employment and pay offered in mining are not equal to those in other lines and, while it is undoubtedly true that the young engineer beginning in mining is able to start under conditions markedly better as to pay, living, and responsibility than did the men who are now leaders, they are required to know much more and have usually spent more in time and money to qualify for their jobs. The whole matter is one which warrants much more attention than has been given to it. For the Institute it is important since the young men

Jan 1, 1923

By H. N. Thomson

GENERAL. THE Tooele plant of the International Smelting & Refining Co. is situated at the mouth of Pine canyon, Tooele county, Utah. It is connected with the main line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroad by the Tooele Valley railway, and is about 7 miles from Tooele Junction. Fig. 1 is a general view of the plant. FIG. 1.-TOOELE PLANT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SMELTING & REFINING Co. The copper plant has been in operation since July, 1910, and the first blast furnace at the lead plant was blown in on Feb. 29, 1912. The location of the plant was selected on sloping ground with the idea of using gravity to the fullest extent and thus keeping labor at a minimum. Practically the entire plant is constructed of steel, reinforced concrete, and brick. Bingham ores, both lead and copper, are received over the Utah Consolidated Aerial Tramway. The tram buckets, each containing

Jan 7, 1913

By P. J. Soltis

Direct as well as indirect evidence of a-phase ordering was found in a "near-a" type titanium alloy, Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V. The annealed alloy showed an anomalous decrease in second-stage creep rate at 950°F (510°C) and 47,500 psi. Anomalous increases were noted in initial yield stress after 500 hr creep exposure and in tensile strength after 1100 hr creep exposure. Debye-Scherrer X-ray diffraction patterns obtained on fine-grained polycrystalline speci-ment showed much line broadening and development of superlattice lines after 500 hr at 510° C. Examination with the light and electron microscopes failed to reveal phase changes in thermally exposed material, but detailed metallography is presented illustrating the plastic and fracture characteristics of the alloy. Electron-metallographic evidence is presented, however, which shows the nature of the nucleation and growth of ordered regions from the disordered a in annealed material. In the original phase diagram of the binary Ti-Al system constructed by Ogden et al.1 aluminum was shown to be soluble in a titanium over a wide temperature range at concentrations up to about 30 pct. Subsequently, a number of papers2-7 have appeared which indicate the existence of either intermetallic compounds and/or ordered phases in the a field up to 25 pct Al. In the most recent of these, Goldak and Gordon paw7 have determined unequivocally the ordered hexagonal D019 structure for Ti3Al in a 25 pct Al alloy. No superlattice lines were observed above 1112°F (600°C). Previously, the embrittle-ment encountered by Crossley and Carew4 in low- temperature heat treatments of binary Ti-Al alloys low in aluminum had been attributed to the appearance of a new phase in light micrographs. In the present work, direct as well as indirect evidence is presented showing the existence of a-phase ordering in what is essentially the binary Ti-8A1 alloy containing small percentages of the ß stabilizers molybdenum and vanadium, i.e., the "near-a" Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy. Although Bohanek and Kessler8 have shown that this alloy has good stability at temperatures up to 1100°F (593°C), the present work shows instability at 950°F (510°C) where long exposure times were used. Light and electron microscopy proved very useful in revealing the mechanical behavior of ordered a and led to the conviction that ordered "near-a" alloys may have remarkably good properties and useful engineering applications.

Jan 1, 1965

By J. J. Jakosky

A REVIEW of the progress in applied geophysics during the recent depression years reveals marked advances over the methods employed several years ago. Of late, geophysical work has been curtailed to a Con-siderable extent in the fields of oil and base-metal exploration, its especial domains a few years ago. Greater attention has been directed toward the use of geophysical technique in other engineering problems. Constantly maintained research programs have developed new instruments and per-fected better field, laboratory and interpretation techniques based on experience and skill acquired from years of application in the older geophysical field. During the past two years, geophysical methods have been employed in problems that required information on thickness of fill materials and subsurface bedrock contours. Considerable success has been attained, with subsequent drilling checking the predicted depths within one to five per cent. In general, these problems were similar as far as the fundamen-tal physical and geological conditions were concerned, but they have varied widely in specific detail and in engineering aspects. Character-istic of the different problems are: (1) yardage and bedrock profile in gold-placer mining; (2) water supply, involving underground drainage and storage conditions; (3) bedrock contours in dam-site and other structural investigations; (4) gravel and fill yardage, and other structural features along rights of way and in rock and gravel quarrying. Of particular interest, perhaps, to mining men are the problems of gold placer deposits and water supply. Geophysical work on gold placers is of especial interest because of the present expanded activity in all phases of gold mining. The development of a suitable water supply at an economical cost is often of prime importance in insuring a successful mining venture. Particularly is this true in the arid Southwest. How-ever, the use of geophysical work in water supply is not confined to the needs of mining development.

Jan 1, 1933