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By D. S. Kingery

The practice of using doors to control main ventilating currents in bituminous-coal mines is common throughout the industry. When doors are erected in pairs to form air locks, they are usually accepted as satisfactory by both State and Federal coal-mine-inspection agencies. A review of the contributing factors in recent methane ignitions showed that interrupted ventilation (often caused by doors latched open, destroyed, or damaged) was the principal cause of methane accumulations that subsequently were ignited.

Jan 1, 1958

Develop a method for control of groundwater inflow to chronically "wet" sections of underground coal mines, in order to reduce groundwater interference with mining activity and to minimize acid mine drainage. Approach In eastern coal regions, groundwater stored in fracture zones in the rock mass can create a significant water problem for underground mining operations. Fracture stored inflow to mine workings impedes mine productivity since storage water sources usually release at the active face, creating the poor mining conditions typical of a "wet" section. Fracture water can also contribute to AMD problems when the water subsequently contacts sulfide minerals in the coal, The Bureau of Mines has developed a mine-dewatering method that eliminates many of the problems associated with mine water inflow by draining these fracture zones before the water can reach the developing face and interfere with mining activity. How it Works The dewatering method removes large volumes of the stored groundwater through high-capacity pumping from a minimal number of wells placed strategically on fracture traces (the surface expressions of fractured rock zones). These fracture traces are located through low-level aerial photographic and geologic investigation. As shown on the map, dewatering wells are sited precisely on fracture trace intersections in order to take advantage of the increased pumping capacity gained from these zones of high permeability. Once well drawdown indicates that the stored water is depleted,

Jan 1, 1983

By D. J. MacDonald

The Bureau of Mines has carried out investigations on a method for producing zirconyl sulfate solution from zircon sand, comprising (1) reacting zircon sand with molten NaOH, (2) leaching the resultant fusion frit with water to remove sodium silicate and to convert sodium zircon-ate to hydrous zirconium oxide, and (3) leaching the hydrous zirconium oxide from unreacted sand with hot, dilute H2S04 to produce crude zirconyl sulfate solution. The following conditions were found to be suitable: reacting 0.6 kg of NaOH per kilogram of zircon sand for 10 min at 600° C; leaching the frit with 3 to 4 liters of water per kilogram of solids; leaching the residue with 5.1 liters of water and 1.25 liters of 98-pct H2S04 per kilogram of original solids for 10 min at 90° C; and filtering or decanting to recover unreacted zircon sand. A preliminary cost estimate is included.

Jan 1, 1982

By E. Morrice

High-purity lanthanum metal was prepared by electrolysis of La003 in a LaF3-LiF-BaF2 bath at 950° C. The requisite bath temperature for the deposition of molten metal was maintained by supplying the heat as current directly to the electrodes. A current efficiency of about 60 percent was obtained. The lanthanum nodules contained carbon and oxygen as major impurities. The total impurity content was from about 0.1 to 0.2 percent.

Jan 1, 1962

Develop methods to detect and repair poorly functioning dust collectors on roof bolters. Approach In conjunction with a research project to reduce silica dust in coal mines, a variety of roof bolting machines operating under different conditions were examined to find out how much these machines were contributing to the silica dust problem. Results The investigation concluded that if the bolting machines' dust collector is properly maintained, very little dust can be measured in the air, even with minimal airflow over the bolter. Poor maintenance, however, frequently results in high dust levels. Three major problem areas were found. These were: (1) filter leaks, which allowed dust to escape, (2) accumulations of dust in the collection system, and (3) low airflow at the bit due to hose, fitting, and relief valve leaks.

Jan 1, 1984

By Maria I. De Rosa

For all coal mining categories, data on coal mine fires during 1990-1999 have been reported as actual numbers and calculated values. 1. For each mining category, actual numbers include the total number of fires, fire injuries, employees' working hours, lost workdays, and coal production (for underground and surface mines only) for a 1 0-year period (1 990- 1999) and for five successive 2-year periods with the 10-year period. These numbers have also been reported by state ( 10-year period). The actual number of fire fatalities has been reported by time period. Furthermore, actual numbers of fires for the five 2-year periods have been reported by ignition source, method of detection and suppression, equipment involved, location, and burning material. Actual numbers of fire injuries per number of fires causing injuries and total fires have been reported by year, ignition source, equipment involved, and location. 2. For each mining category, the calculated values include the fire and injury risk rates during the 10-year period and the five 2-year periods. The fire risk rate (Frr) values were calculated according to the USBM formula [Pornroy and Carigiet 19951. The injury risk rate (Irr) values were calculated according to the MSHA formula [MSHA 1991a, 1992, 1993, 1994a, 1995a, 1996, 1997, 1998b, 1999c, 20001. Also, risk rate values for individual states (10-year period) were calculated according to the above-mentioned formulas. Of note is that only the risk rate values for the 10-year and five 2-year periods and risk rate values for individual states with the highest number of fires and fue injuries were considered for comparison purposes. The fatality risk rate values were not calculated because of the extremely small number of fire fatalities during the 1 0-year period. 3. Calculations of risk rate values are as follows: a. Fire risk rate (Frr) value: Number of fires per million tons of coal produced [Pornroy and Carigiet 19951. b. Injury risk rate (Irr) value: Number of fire injuries multiplied by 200,000 working hours per total employees' working hours [MSHA 1991a, l992,1993,1994a, 1995a, 1996, 1997, 1998b, 1999c, 20001. The Irr value is the average risk rate value for the number of fire injuries per 200,000 working hours for a given time period.

Jan 1, 2004

By M. J. Friedel, D. E. Scott, T. J. Williams

Rock masses in deep level mines are subject to high stresses, which can result in unexpected failure of rock into mined-out openings. Historically, various independent methods have been used to discern the causes of rock bursts and to evaluate stress conditions in rock masses susceptible to violent failure. Personnel from two research centers of the former U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane and Twin Cities, investigated a rock burst that occurred in May of 1994 in a rock mass between the 4400 and the 4600 levels of the Sunshine Mine, Kellogg, ID. The team evaluated the current state of stress in the pillar and the most likely cause of the rock burst by studying the seismic history of the pillar, examining the geology, analyzing the available in situ stress data, calculating possible fault-plane solutions for the burst, and performing a seismic velocity tomographic survey. The results of the study showed that post-rock-burst seismicity was concentrated about 15 to 30 m west of and about 15 m above the rock-burst location. The pillar is composed of a very hard sericitic-to- vitreous quartzite of a type rarely found in the mine, but that is often found in other district mines having a history of seismic activity. In situ stress analysis of the pillar and the surrounding rock mass showed a probable stress rotation from northwest-southeast to east-west. Of four fault plane solutions, the most probable was either a left-lateral, strike-slip movement with a compressive principal stress oriented nearly north-south, or a right-lateral, strike-slip movement oriented east-west. Finally, tomographic images showed low-velocity areas (interpreted as areas of low stress) associated with the crosscuts and haulageways, and high-velocity areas (interpreted as areas of high stress) associated with the rock-burst location. High velocities were also found in a planar area oriented in an elongate northeast-southwest direction.

By A. W. Hall

Cylindrical plastic scintillators were investigated for efficiency in detecting neutron-induced prompt gamma rays. Scintillator performance was compared on the basis of half-resolution and peak-to-trough ratios for gamma spectra obtained from Co-60 (1.17 and 1.33 MeV), Th-228 (2.62 MeV), and PuBe (4.43 MeV). Various sizes of Pilot Chemical scintillators (types B, F, M, and Y) were tested. The best half-resolution, 7.7 percent for PuBe, was achieved with a 5-by 5-inch Pilot Y?scintillator and dual photomultipliers. Comparison with sodium iodide (NaI) scintillators and the use of plastic scintillators for on-stream analysis of sulfur in coal is discussed. Plastics were found to be unsuitable for on-stream analysis of materials having complex prompt gamma ray spectra; however, they could conceivably be used for those yielding Simpler spectra.

Jan 1, 1974

By T. F. Morse, R. Lundstrom, A. J. Brammer, D. Peterson, M. Cherniack, T. Nilsson, J. D. Meyer, E. Toppila, G. Neely, N. Warren

HAVIC is a collaboration of investigators from North America, Sweden, and Finland having a scientific mandate from NIOSH, to study the exposure response relationship between vibratory tool exposure and adverse health effects. Five cohorts, the Suomossalmi forest workers cohort, Volvo truck cab workers, Connecticut shipyard workers, and matriculating dental hygiene students and experienced dental hygienists have been under study. In the case of shipyard workers, there was survey and tool exposure data from 1988, although detailed subject testing was only available within the timeframe of the study. The truck cab assembly workforce was an inception cohort that had been followed from 1994 along with age-matched controls. The Finnish forest workers had cumulative health data on a cohort (n=52) that had been studied from 1976. For a subset of these subjects, there was detailed tactometry testing in 1990, 1995, and 2003. Accordingly, there was historical as well as new prospective data for the industrial cohorts. The Suomossalmi cohort was reassembled only for our study, which precluded follow-up evaluation and because of retirement is almost certainly the last time this historic group will be studied. The study features are: • Characterization of the exposure response relationship for hand-arm vibration through a study design, incorporating multiple cohorts, some having existing historical data, • Selection of cohorts to include different types of vibration: oscillatory (forest workers) impact (truck cab workers), high frequency (dental hygienists) and mixed (shipyard workers), • Inclusion of two inception cohorts: dental hygiene students and Swedish truck cab workers, • Methods for multi-site and historical integration A description follows. [ ] Methods The study included surveys, physical evaluation, and a selection of battery of “best tests” (cold challenge plethysmography, multi-frequency tactometry, segmental sensory nerve conduction velocity [SNCV]1,2,3) applied across groups to quantify responses to exposure. Exposure monitoring included exposure characterization through daylong data logging at the individual level. Workers at each site were instrumented with a microcomputer-based Vibration Exposure Monitoring (VEM) system, developed at the Biodynamics Laboratory of UCHC and about the size of a police walkie-talkie, to record user-specific tool-operating times, vibrations, and grip forces throughout all, or a representative part, of their workday. More specifically, data logging methods involved the direct monitoring of work cycles, involving tool operation time and measures of tool vibration, namely the root-mean-square (RMS), root-mean-quad (RMQ), and root-mean-oct (RMO), and grip forces, each calculated per minute. For this study, the questionnaire was homogenized with other vibration studies4,5,6. Cross-translation was directed by the multi-lingual investigators, and then reviewed by the study team. To extend comparability with future international studies, questions were also added from the Vibration Network (VINET) draft questionnaire, the product of a European

Jan 6, 2006

By Christopher Mark, Anthony T. Iannacchione

Falls of ground continue to be one of the most serious causes of injury to U.S. miners. Of the 256 fatal injuries that occurred in mining between 1996 and 1998, 59 (23%) were caused by falls of ground (Table 23.1). Falls of ground affect some sectors of the mining industry more severely than others. For instance, nearly 40% of the 98 coal mine fatalities between 1996 and 1998 were caused by falls of ground. Underground miners are at much greater risk than surface miners. Nearly half (45 out of 101) of underground mine fatalities were attributed to roof, rib, and face falls, while only 6% of the 155 surface fatalities were caused by falls of highwalls or slopes. The goal of this chapter is to provide guidance to safety professionals tasked with preventing ground fall injuries. This chapter combines an analysis of the Mine Safety and Health Administration's (MS HA) accident and injury data with a survey of industry "best practices" to safeguard miners from ground falls. Ultimately, this approach can help to form the basis of a sound, proactive ground control program for the mining industry. SOURCES OF DATA All the injury data examined in this study were derived from MSHA's fatal investigation reports and the MSHA accident database. Because falls of ground often result in serious injury, MSHA "Fatalgrams" and fatal investigation reports provide a useful snapshot of ground control issues in the mining industry. These reports are available to the public (on the M FHA Web site at www.msha.gov). Fatalgrams, are one-page summaries that are usually published within a month of an accident. They contain very basic information about the accident with a graphic and a short section on relevant best practices. Fatal investigation reports are the official accident investigation reports filed by MSHA personnel. These reports contain general information about the mine, a, description of the accident, physical factors involved in the accident, a conclusion, and enforcement actions, Enforcement actions typically identify citations and discuss violations to the Federal Mining Law. MSHA also maintains comprehensive statistical data on the mining industry's accident and injury record. The law requires that mines file a report on every reportable accident that occurs, containing information on the accident's location, severity, classification, activity, and nature of injury A short narrative is generally included as well. Accident reports can be searched by many of the above fields.

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Jan 1, 2011

By Lambert Dolphin, George Oetzel, Robert Bollen

An electromagnetic sounder developed for an archaeological application in Egypt has been successfully tested in a California dolomite mine. Chambers in the mine 100 to 130 feet from the surface gave intense, well-defined echoes consistent with an average attenuation coefficient of 0.6dB/m and a relative dielectric constant of 11. By moving the transmitter and receiver units on the hillside above the underground chambers, various characteristics of the propagation could be observed such as dispersion, chamber aspect sensitivity and cross section. The transmitted pulse was one to one-and-a-half radio-frequency cycles long at a peak power of 0.2 MW. Frequencies employed were 16 to 50 MHz. The light weight, highly portable, battery-powered equipment is potentially suited to other underground sounding applications.

Jan 1, 1973

By W. W. Adams

Fatal accidents at coal mines throughout the United States numbered 170 during May , 1923 , according to reports received by the Bureau of Mines of the Department of the Interior from State mine inspectors . The production of coal during the month was 54,649,000 tons ; hence , the fatality rate was 3.11 per million tons . In May last year the fatality rate was 4.22 , based upon an output of 20,636,000 tons , including 35,000 tons of anthracite . Because of the miners ' suspension of work last year, the production of fresh-mined anthracite in May 1922 was completely stopped ; in May 1923 the anthracite output was 9,573,000 tons . For bituminous mines alone , the fatality rate in May 1923 was 2.67 per million tons as compared with 4.17 in May a year ago . During the first five months of the present year , the fatality rate for bituminous mines was 3.55 per million tons , based on 809 deaths , as against a rate of 3.70 for the corresponding months last year, based on 611 deaths . The rate for 1923 represents a reduction of 4 per cent . For anthracite mines alone the five-month fatality rate for 1923 was 5.36 per million tons , based on 228 fatalities , as against a rate of 6.72 for the first five months of 1922 based on 147 fatalities . The rate for 1923 represents a reduction of 20 per cent . The average fatality rate for May during the past ten years ( 1913-1922 ) is 3.37 per million tons for bituminous coal mines and 6.02 per million tons for anthracite mines . A gas explosion , due to open light , occurred on May 6 at Aguila , Colorado , and resulted in the death of ten men . This explosion brought the number of "major disasters " in 1923 to 4 , with a loss of 145 lives . During the first five months of last year, there were 7 similar disasters with a loss of 82 lives . The year's record to date for all fatalities from all causes shows a reduction in the fatality rates per million tons from haulage accidents and from falls of roof and coal , an increase in explosions of gas and dust and in accidents due to electricity , and no change in the fatality rate from explosives . The reductions in haulage accidents and in falls of roof and coal are particularly gratifying, because these two classes of accidents usually cause about 65 per cent of all fatalities in the coal-mining industry . Reports of Investigations , Department of the Interior , Bureau of Mines .

Jun 1, 1923

Validate the premise that there is measurable seismic activity associated with abandoned mint lands and that this activity can be used to determine stability of the abandoned mine openings, failure cycle of these openings, and susceptibility of the area to surface subsidence. Approach The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted field investigations at two geologically contrasting sites, Colorado Springs, CO, and the Allegheny Portage Railroad Historical Site near Cresson, PA, to demonstrate that developing monitoring technology can be applied to any site. An array of seven geophones (velocity-measuring sensors) were strategically located to encompass an area at each site where failure in the underground mine openings could be expected, based on historical, geological, and engineering information. How It Works Bureau research has effectively demonstrated that stress changes within a rock mass can stimulate the development of cracks and fractures, resulting in the release of strain energy that generates seismic waves. These seismic waves, traveling outward from their source, can be detected, and the point of origin can be located in three-dimensional space. Furthermore, these seismic signals contain information that defines the source mechanism and the conditions between the source and the receiving sensor.

Jan 1, 1992

Enhance hydraulic fragmentation technology by developing alternative grout sealing methods. Traditional grout scaling methods rely on chemical adhesion and require large contact areas to restrict high-pressure fluids. Fluid injection into rock requires economical and effective seals. With economical and effective seals, rock is easily fractured in tension by high-pressure fluid injection (fig. 1). Approach An innovative grouting technique was developed and tested by the Bureau. Slowly hydrating expanding chemicals are placed within a borehole and around a section of high-pressure tubing. Testing was conducted using 9/16-inch-OD smooth-walled injection tubes in 1.5-inch-ID holes. Seal lengths weir less than 10 inches and curing times were less than 24 hours.

Jan 1, 1989

This chapter presents data on occupational exposures from several sources. Data from compliance samples obtained by MSHA inspectors are presented in table 6-1 for coal mine dust and silica dust, and in tables 6-2 through 6-6 for metal fumes. Since these samples were taken for compliance monitoring rather than as part of a survey of the industry, it is difficult to predict how well they indicate actual exposures for all mining operations. In the coal industry, 7.8% of all respirable dust samples during 1986-1995 were above the permissible exposure limit (PEL). Of silica dust samples obtained during the 10-year period, 23.7% were above the PEL in coal, 16% in metal, 10.8% in nonmetal, 9.1% in stone, and 7.6% in sand and gravel. Of metal fume samples, silver samples showed the largest percentage above the PEL-approximately 48% of samples in both metal and nonmetal. Tables 6-7 and 6-8 present data on noise exposures from the MSHA "dual threshold" survey, which was published in the Federal Register [61 Fed. Reg. 66347 (1996)] as part of a proposed rule change for occupational noise exposure in mining. This study examined a group of samples obtained during 1991-1995 and compared the percent of samples that were above two separate specified limits. The first limit was the current noise standard, a time-weighted average of 90 dBA, calculated to include only exposures at 90 dBA and above. The second limit was a time-weighted average of 85 dBA, calculated to include exposures at 80 dBA and above. Tables 6-8 and 6-9 refer to musculoskeletal overload conditions examined in the National Occupational Health Survey of Mining (NOHSM) [NIOSH 1996]. Table 6-8 shows the operational definitions for each condition; table 6-9 shows the percentage of the workforce potentially exposed, by commodity. Across all commodities, a large proportion of workers were exposed to musculoskeletal overloads due to positioning of the neck and back; positioning and motion of the forearms, arms, and shoulders; heavy lifting; and positioning and movement of the lower limbs. The recorded overloads were defined in the survey and did not exceed any NIOSH, MSHA, or OSHA guidelines for musculoskeletal overloads. Further information on this survey appears in appendix A.

Jan 5, 2000

By Alfred E. Schwaneke

An improved maximum-bubble-pressure system using the Sugden twin-capillary method for measuring the surface tension and density of molten metals is described. Improvements include (1) internally ground capillary tips, (2) electronic pressure transducers, (3) micrometer adjustment of immersion depth for density measurements, (4) valuing arrangements to allow operation at other than atmospheric pressure, (5) temperature range to 1,100° C, and (6) recorder readout of pressures. Data for surface tension of mercury from 20° to 300° C are given.

Jan 1, 1970

By Oliver Bowles

As the preface states, this bulletin is the fourth of a series of re- ports by the Bureau of Mines on different phases of quarrying in the United States. The first part of the bulletin describes the chief types of cements, the growth of the cement industry in this country, and the character of the raw materials used. The bulk of the report deals with quarrying methods and equipment, and gives especial attention to drilling and blasting; a chapter on rock mining and one on pros- pecting are included. Methods of manufacture are mentioned briefly, as that subject, except as related to quarrying, lies outside the scope of this report; but transportation methods and the effects of the man- ner of mixing the materials at the quarry or crushing plant on quarrying methods are discussed.

Jan 1, 1918

By S. Gallagher, A. Mayton, R. Merkel

The prolonged exposure of equipment operators to shock and whole-body vibration (WBV) IS linked to cumulative back, neck, and abdominal disorders. In low-coal mines, space restrictions make seat suspensions difficult to use in isolating operators from shock and WBV. Researchers at NIOSH, Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, are responding to these issues by investigating viscoelastic foams. For the full-load case. an ergonomic seat with viscoelastic foams isolated the shuttle car operator from shock at 15 Hz. Researchers used results from additional foam testing with an analytical model to identify viscoelastic foams that provide shock isolation at a frequency below 5 Hz.

Minimize drilling time in roof bolting. Approach The Bureau of Mines conducted a survey of 34 roof bolting machines used in underground coal mines. Results of the survey indicated that drilling time, bit cost, and respirable dust concentrations and be reduced by using the appropriate bits for drilling, To evaluate bits currently used and to find optimum cutting parameters needed to minimize drilling time, the Bureau tested two bits commonly used in most underground mines on both wet and dry systems. These are the dusthog* and shank type. The dusthog has dust ports in the bit body to remove cuttings. With shank bits, holes in the drill steel do this. Cost of each type is roughly equal. Bolters with dry vacuum systems were tested in the laboratory first. The lab tests were verified by underground tests in several mines. Bolters with low-pressure wet drilling systems were also tested under-ground. Tests concentrated on the effect of rpm, water and airflow rates, heating, wear, bit design and bit type. Lab Results -Dry Drilling Holes were drilled during the laboratory tests using a production model bolter drilling 45-inch-deep holes into mixtures of lime stone and sandstone aggregate. All tests started with new shank and dusthog type bits at 225 and 450 rpm. Thrust was about 6,000 lbs in all tests. Each bit was tested at two airflows, 15 and 25 cfm, airflows which are typical on operating roof bolter bits. Eleven styles of bits were evaluated. On the average, dusthog bits drilled 25% faster than shank types and were always cooler after drilling. The effect of RPM was tested with 5 different bit types. When bit rpm was increased from 300 to 400, drilling rates doubled. With used, well-worn bits drilling time and final bit temperature were more than doubled.

Jan 1, 1986