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By G. K. Livingstone

"This paper describes mining conditions in the Kaiser surface and underground coal mines in the Sparwood area of southeastern British Columbia. Mining methods are explained, major mining equipment is listed and production rates are given. Reclamation methods and results are described. Data are given on safety organization, safety practices, accident statistics, safety inspections and absenteeism. IntroductionThe coal mines of Kaiser Resources Ltd. are located in the southeast corner of British Columbia. All present mining is in the Sparwood area, where operations began in 1900 with the opening of the Michel underground mines. Production increased rapidly at first, then went through successive periods of depression and prosperity. Following are the highlights. Quantities are in clean, short tons. 1900 1910-Rapid rise in production to a peak of 512,000 tons in 1910.1911-1924-Reduced rate of production, averaging 238,000 tons per year, due to strikes, manpower shortage during World War 1 and post-war depression.1925-1929-Second prosperous era, with production climbing to 383,000 in 1929.1930-1933-Second depression-production falling to 231,000 in 1933.1934-1942-Third era of prosperity-production recovered and new production peak of 908,000 tons reached in 1942 during World War II.1943-1956-Corttinued prosperity, with production averaging 720,000 tons per year.1957-1959-Loss of markets to oil and gas; production dropping to 517,000 tons in 1959.1959-1969-Recovery due to new coal market in Japan; production climbing back to the 900,000-ton level.197D-Present-Jump in production reaching 6.6 million tons in 1975. This was the result of the purchase of the property by Kaiser Steel, who negotiated a large-volume, long-term contract with Japan, built the coal port of Westshore, reduced shipping costs by instituting unit trains, and reduced production costs by investing in large-scale mining machinery and a new preparation plant."

Jan 1, 1980

By G. Barr

"The Polymetallic Twin Metals Project deposits in Northern Minnesota are being developed by Twin Metals Minnesota. Amongst the flowsheet alternatives being examined at a prefeasibility study level is one involving flotation of a bulk concentrate followed by high temperature autoclaving of the concentrate using the PlatsolTM Process to solubilize all the valuable metals in the concentrate (Cu, Ni, Pt, Pd and Au). Autoclave operating conditions have been established in which recoveries of all the pay metals are in the 92 to 99% range, and the autoclave residence time has been reduced to an hour. The stability of the precious metals in solution after autoclaving has been assessed, as well as the impact of internally recycling process liquors to the feed to the autoclave.INTRODUCTIONPlatinum group metals (PGMs; platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium) are traditionally recovered from their ores by production of a high-grade concentrate by flotation and/or gravity concentration followed by smelting of the concentrate. Concentrates are smelted to remove nonsulphide minerals and converted to remove iron and sulphur. The resulting high PGM grade matte is processed hydrometallurgically to leach the base metals, leaving a residue with a very high grade (20-40%) PGM concentrate for final refining to individual PGMs. Due to the complexity of this process and its high capital cost, this process can only be applied economically to high grade PGM ores. Lower grade PGM concentrates might be accepted as copper and nickel concentrates but may not yield attractive payment terms for the PGMs. The mineralized Duluth Gabbro region of Minnesota hosts several low grade base and PGM deposits and Twin Metals Minnesota is working to develop the Twin Metals Project deposits. Earlier studies at both pre-feasibility and feasibility level, by other mining companies, have failed to yield an economically viable project based on the traditional process. It is possible to produce a saleable copper concentrate from these ores, but economic recovery of nickel and PGMs into saleable concentrates proved elusive.In the late 1990’s and early 2000’s the Platsol™ process was developed at SGS in Lakefield, Ontario (at the time Lakefield Research Limited) for the NorthMet deposit (also within the Duluth Gabbro) owned by PolyMet Mining. The process developed was a high temperature chloride-assisted pressure oxidation process capable of dissolving simultaneously the base metals (Cu, Ni, Co, Zn), gold and the PGMs."

Jan 1, 2012

By J. A. MacLellan

It is the hope of the author that this paper, largely a compilation of observations and opinions built up over 20 years of experience in cold and remote areas may be of some help to others in designing better plants for the future in the north. The north is not as difficult to operate in as the better story tellers make it appear to be. ()n the other hand for 6 months of the year the cold is always there, and it seems to be waiting for someone to make a mistake. The simplest things can shut a multi-million dollar plant down at -4n' F with a 4n M.P.H, wind. It only takes one man door improperly latched to freeze up all the pumps on the bottom floor. Someone can poke a one inch hole in an outside wall in July and six months later while you are having Christmas dinner, a watchman will call up to report that the whole plant is flooded because the main water line just froze up and burst. Basic things to remember in plant design for cold and remote areas are: everything in these areas is more expensive due to long and difficult supply lines. Fuel is expensive and would be a major cost item even if it were not expensive, due to the extended periods of low temperatures. Building volumes should therefore he kept to an acceptable minimum. Service areas on the other hand must he adequate, because maintenance generally has to be conducted inside in a heated area. Supply vehicles for instance have to get completely inside the building to unload. If you try to unload a supply vehicle with the door open at -50° F, you won't be able to find the vehicle for fog and if you take more than 5 minutes half the water lines in the plant will freeze up. People in a remote area are expensive. The capital investment per employee may be as high as $30,000; with fringe benefits per annum costs of an employee will he as high as 812,000 per year regardless of basic wage rate. It

Jan 1, 1971

By Randal J. Barnes, Franck Rellier

Mine ventilation survey data includes generally redundant, usually inconsistent, often incomplete, and always noisy measurements. Yet, these data are essential for operational decisions and represent the foundation of any mine ventilation systems model used for future engineering analysis and design. For example, the basic ventilation network geometry can be measured with a reasonable precision, the network flows can be measured, but with significant errors, and the branch resistance factors can not be directly measured at all. The network-based, constrained weighted least squares approach, presented in this paper, advances a method for the sys tem-wide adjustment of ventilation branch measurements and the consistent estimation of global system parameters (e.g. branch flows, head losses, and resistance factors). The constraints guarantee that the adjusted values satisfy the governing physical laws: conservation of flow, conservation of energy, and the appropriate energy dissipation rule (e. g. Atkinson's RQ2). The weights allow for the proper inclusion of data with widely disparate precision, as well as offering a simple method for retiring old data as the mine changes through time. The post-adjustment sensitivity analysis presents two potentially useful forms of analysis: the identification of previously unspecified leakage branches, and the semi- automatic recommendation for future ventilation measurement campaigns. The overall efficiency of the algorithm is exemplified by the fact that a ventilation network with hundreds of branches and thousands of measurements can be routinely adjusted on a microcomputer.

Jan 1, 1989

By Yanxu Shen, Cheng Liu, Zhijie Chen, Hao Chen, Huimin Gao, Zijie Ren

Fluorite, a kind of critical non-metallic minerals, is the primary source of industrial fluorine. Sodium oleate (SO) is commonly used as the collector of fluorite ores. However, because of its some features (such as the low solubility, high solidifying point, and poor dispersion of SO) at low temperatures, it profoundly inhibits its collecting ability as well as the flotation performance. Herein, we have developed a low-temperature-resistant collector for the efficient flotation separation of fluorite from quartz. The advantages and disadvantages of the SO and sodium petroleum sulfonate (SPS) were analyzed by comparing the performance under different temperature conditions. The results of flotation tests suggest that SPS exhibited much better collecting performance than SO under low temperature. The flotation mechanism of the two collecting agents were further analyzed by contact angle measurements, zeta potential measurements, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and flotation kinetics. The results indicated that both collectors can selectively undergo electrostatic and chemical adsorption with fluorite, with no adsorption on quartz surface. The sulfonic acid group in SPS is a hydrophilic functional group, which has a relatively higher solubility in water. Therefore, the water solubility of SPS is better at low temperatures.

Sep 30, 2021

By G. Mawire

The extraction of scandium from its oxide with a task specific ionic liquid [Hbet][Tf2N] offers potential advantages of lower energy consumption, recycling of the extractant and reduced environmental impact compared to conventional methods. In this paper, the influence of reaction temperature, solid to liquid ratio and water to the ionic liquid ratio on the extraction of scandium from a synthetic scandium oxide (Sc2O3) system was studied. The influence of investigated parameters on leaching was very significant as approximately 98% scandium was extracted from its oxide after 72 h. Furthermore, the ionic liquid also selectively extracted 47% scandium after 48 h from a mixture of pure metal oxides containing oxides of tantalum, niobium, and scandium. The research demonstrated the potential of [Hbet][Tf2N] to selectively extract scandium from columbite processing tailings and other scandium bearing ores like Ixiolite, Heftetjernite and Tantalite which predominately contain tantalum and niobium.

By J. M. Mutmansky

This paper outlines patterns of methane emission in both longwall and room-and-pillar operations and the effects that these patterns have on the decision as to whether the methane is most economically handled by ventilation alone or by means of a methane drainage system in addition to ventilation. The costs of handling the methane in the ventilation system and the costs of implementing the methane drainage system will be discussed as well as the costs related to the production of coal. The important issue of production slowdowns and gas outs will also be discussed as well as the proper response of mine management to such a situation. Suggestions concerning the keeping of production records related to methane problems will be made as well as justification for more intensive economic analysis of coalbed methane extraction and utilization.

Jan 1, 1998

By Frank Schmidt

Due to changing geology, rib bolting is an ever-changing problem in ground control. With the economic status of the coal market, the need for safely increasing productivity in rib bolting is at an all-time high. The current solutions used in the market often require a long installation time (e.g. if collapsed holes have to be redrilled) or result in poor quality installations that can lead to insufficient ground control. A new bolting product based on the simple screw principle has been developed to bolt ribs faster and with a more repeatable, higher level of installation quality. The paper covers the product invention and development, the fastening principle and its advantages over current systems and first experiences in the market. The first underground trials have shown that the screw anchors can be installed safely and efficiently, often faster than traditional methods. The screw anchor does not suffer from conventional bolting issues such as collapsed holes due to bad ribs. The screw anchors are designed to obtain steel failure and load testing underground shows consistent fastening in all types of conditions.

Jan 1, 2013

By Tapan Goswami, Stephen Jeric, Geoff Brent

Highwall failures in large deep open cut mines have very significant safety and commercial implications. There are many factors influencing the stability of highwalls. The major influence is the interaction of the local geology with the shape of the pit wall. This factor is in the realm of the geotechnical engineer and is beyond the control of the blasting engineer. However, a secondary influence is the blastinduced damage to the wall. In most open cut metal mines the blasting strategy to control this damage involves the use of separate production and trim blasts bounded by presplits at the final wall.

Jan 1, 2011

By B. R. Westphal

The Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept being developed by Argonne National Laboratory is based on the pyrometallurgical processing of spent nuclear metallic fuel with subsequent fabrication into new reactor fuel by an injection casting process. During fabrication, a dilute scrap stream containing uranium alloy fines and broken quartz (Vycor) molds is produced. Waste characterization of this stream, developed by using present operating data and chemical analysis, was used to evaluate different uranium recovery methods and possible process variations for the return of the recovered metal. Two methods, comminution with size separation and electrostatic separation, have been tested and can successfully recover over 94% of the metal. Recycling the recovered metal to the injection casting process was evaluated for the different economic and process impacts. The physical waste parameters and the important separation process variables are discussed relative to their effects on the viability of recycling the material. A discussion of the criteria that is being used to establish the acceptable operating limits is also presented.

Jan 1, 1992

By J. F. Shaw

MINE fires are usually extinguished by constructing seals in the approaches to the areas to exclude air from the fire areas, which smothers the fires in an oxygen-depleted atmosphere. Seals should be substantially constructed and made as nearly airtight as possible and should be provided with a sampling pipe so that samples of the atmospheres behind the seals may be collected at regular intervals. Methods of constructing seals and of sampling and analysing mine atmospheres are fully described in Bureau of Mines publications. (1, 2). Information obtained on the composition of atmospheres behind fire seals is helpful in determining if a fire has been extinguished or if there is any danger of an explosion when a fire area is being sealed or unsealed. The progress of a mine fire can best be determined by studying percentages of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen in the atmosphere behind the seals. Hydrogen will be formed in a bituminous- or subbituminous-coal mine when the temperature exceeds 480° F. and in an anthracite mine when the temperature exceeds 660° F. (3). Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are both products of combustion of coal, wood, or other organic compounds. The presence of carbon monoxide has long been accepted as an indication of a mine fire. A sealed fire area should not be reopened until the carbon monoxide has disappeared. Trends in the percentage of carbon dioxide are also useful in determining the status of a mine fire. Carbon dioxide is sometimes liberated by rock strata. In this case, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere behind a seal will be from two sources-the rock strata and the fire. When the, fire is extinguished, carbon dioxide will be liberated from only I source, the rock strata, and when the percentages of carbon dioxide are plotted, the slope of the curve will not be as steep as when this gas was being liberated from 2 sources. If the only source is the fire, the percentages of carbon dioxide will gradually decrease after the fire has been extinguished. By studying analyses of a mine-fire atmosphere, it is possible to determine if the atmosphere is explosive; if the mixture is capable of becoming explosive when mixed with air; and if the mixture can be made nonexplosive or be prevented from becoming explosive by being mixed with an inert gas. These factors can be computed mathematically or determined graphically. The mathematical calculations advanced by Ash and Felegy (7) are discussed, and graphical solutions of their equations are presented. It is believed that the graphical solution will be extremely helpful in determining the characteristics of a mine-fire atmosphere when fighting a fire, because the results can be obtained in a matter of minutes, and there is less likelihood of an error being made under the stress incident to control efforts. The experimental and theoretical work upon which the formulas are based have been adequately described and are not discussed at this time (5) (6).

Jan 1, 1955

By Larry A. Haas

The U.S. Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with Cleveland-Cliffs, Inc. (Hibbing, MN), investigated ways of enhancing the quality (compressive strength, after-tumble and reducibility) of domestic acid and fluxed magnetite pellets by modifying the oxygen content during the preheat and induration periods of the firing operation . Oxidation of magnetite was best accomplished when sufficient oxygen and time were available before the peak induration temperature was reached. The rate of magnetite oxidation increased directly with the gas oxygen content during the preheat period at 7000 C and above. With 30 pct ( or more) O2 and a preheat rate of 2000 C/min, most of the magnetite was oxidized during the preheat period. With laboratory tube and mini-pot furnace tests, oxygen enrichment during the preheat period improved the pellet properties more in the simulated grate-kiln tests than in the simulated straight-grate tests. The longer induration period with the grate-kiln test resulted in more sintering of the residual magnetite and its reaction with the silicon compounds. When flux was present in the pellets, calcium silicates and calcium and magnesium ferrites were formed. More calcium ferrite was formed when the magnetite was oxidized early and less iron was present in the fayalitic calcium silicate slag.

Jan 1, 1993

By J .. A. Nemes, I. Ragai

This paper discusses one of the common problems associated with sheet metal forming processes, which is spring back. The materials presented here, stainless steel 410 and Inconel 718, are commonly used in aerospace applications for their superior material properties. Standard tensile tests were performed to determine their tensile properties, as well as material anisotropy. In addition, the effect of anisotropy on springback was assessed experimentally through simple multiple-bending experiments in different directions to the rolling direction. Finally, draw-bending experiments were carried out to study the effect of forming conditions, such as blank holding force, on the final springback angles of the formed parts. For both materials, it was found that the R-values measured for different sheets exhibited variation. However, the specimen orientation does not have a large effect on material tensile behavior or springback angle for simple bending. For the Inconel 718 specimens, the springback angle slightly increases with each stage of deformation during multiple bend experiments. The effect of the blank holding force on springback angles was also examined and found to have a significant effect on thin specimens.

Jan 1, 2006

By A. F. Banfield

"IntroductionELEMENTAL sulphur occurs in three types of deposits: in salt domes in the Gulf Coast region of the United States and Mexico, from which over 90 per cent of world native-sulphur production is obtained; in sedimentary deposits such as those in Sicily, which are thought by some authorities to contain the largest world reserves of elemental sulphur; and as surface deposits, associated now or in the past with some phase of vulcanism, the type which bas the greatest world-wide distribution.Deposits of the volcanic type are the subject of this paper.From antiquity until the successful development of the sulphur-bearing salt domes at the beginning of this century, important sulphur production for local needs was obtained from volcanic deposits in many parts of the world. Due to technical and economic factors, however, producers could not compete in price with sulphur from salt domes. •The result has been that, except in Japan and Chile, little sulphur was produced from volcanic deposits from about 1910 until the start of the Korean war in 1950. Shortly after the outbreak of the Korean war, an acute world sulphur shortage developed and prices skyrocketed in many countries up to several hundred dollars a ton. Interest in volcanic deposits was renewed and exploitation of many was undertaken. Few of these operations have been successful, mostly due to inability of management to solve technical problems.While important volcanic deposits of elemental sulphur have not been reported ( 1) in Canada, and it is doubtful that any will be found, data presented in this paper may be of interest to students of ore genesis.This paper is based on field examination of numerous deposits of the volcanic type in North and South America."

Jan 1, 1954

By Emil Gathmann

Through wide experience at numerous mills in the United States I have found that there is a decided difference of opinion among the producers of steel as to what constitutes commercially sound steel. Some metallurgists insist upon having, for certain grades of steel, a so-called "open steel," i.e., one which contains numerous blowholes of varying sizes, and consequently but little volume of true pipe, although a central intermittent shrinkage cavity often extends well down into the ingot. Such blowholes and pipe are expected to weld up during rolling or forging, because their surfaces are not oxidized. Even if this be admitted, included slag particles and a high degree of segregation are bound to be present in the product of such ingots. Blowholes are the result of an oxidized heat, and all heats, unless made or finished in the electric furnace, are oxidized more or less. Subsequent deoxidation, or rather degasification, either in the ladle or in the mold, or in both, is necessary to reduce or prevent blowholes. As is well known, a greater yield of billets or sheets is secured from the ingot by allowing the formation of blowholes, but this is undoubtedly obtained at the expense of the quality of the product. Decided segregation of carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, as well as small included slag particles, undoubtedly exists throughout the greater portion of all so-called open steel, and cannot be removed by cropping. The first requisite for sound, homogeneous steel ingots and blooms is therefore, in my opinion, so to treat the steel in the furnace, ladle, and mold that "piping" steel is produced. The line of demarcation between harmful and so-called "harmless" blowholes is practically impossible to define. Is it not, therefore, the better and safer practice to use means for the elimination of blowholes and correspondingly reduce the segregation and allow the formation of a well-defined shrinkage cavity or pipe at the upper end of the ingot? With the relatively cheap deoxidizers available at the present time, e.g., ferro-silicon, aluminum and titanium, there is no commercial reason why all steel should not be thoroughly degasified. A degasified steel being provided, the method of freezing or solidifying the liquid steel into an ingot, and the subsequent working into blooms and thence into various products, is of great importance in reducing the crop or scrap portion of the steel, due to segregation and pipe. How to ac-

Jan 1, 1916

By D A. Kepert, I J. Tehnas, M A. Pudovsk

BHP Billiton (BHPB) was the first company to start iron ore mining in the Pilbara at Mt Goldsworthy in 1966 through Goldsworthy Mining Limited (GML - then Consolidated Goldfields Australia, Cyprus Mines and Utah). Operations later started at Newman on Mt Whaleback in 1969 with the Mt Newman Mining Joint Venture (MNM û then comprising American Metals Climax û AMAX, Colonial Sugar Refineries û CSR and BHP). In 1986 it acquired majority ownership of MNM, and at the same time the previously 100 per cent BHPB owned but undeveloped Yandi property came on board. Purchase of Jimblebar (formerly McCameyÆs Monster) occurred in 1990 and full ownership of Goldsworthy followed in 1991. With the exception of Jimblebar (100 per cent owned), all mines are now 85 per cent BHPB and the balance with Itochu and Mitsui. This evolution of the company resulted in an eclectic mix of mines/ores, each with their varied exploration and evaluation histories. Discussion of some aspects of these histories, and reflections on changes in exploration-related activities with particular reference to discussion of advances in geological understanding since the 1960s forms the basis of this paper. BHPB presently has open cut mines at four main centres û Newman, Jimblebar, Marillana Creek (Yandi) and Yarrie û and is currently developing the former GML Area C near Yandi. With the exception of NewmanÆs Mt Whaleback mine and immediate satellites, all are contract operated. Ore is carried on BHPB railroads (696 km total) for export through the companyÆs Nelson Point or Finucane Island shipping facilities at Port Hedland. Some is directed to the BHPB Boodarie Iron hot briquetted iron plant near Finucane Island. Over 73 Mt of ore was produced by BHPB in calendar 2001, and the company has now mined over 1500 Mt in Western Australia since their operations at Yampi Sound first started in 1956.

Jan 1, 2002

By R. L. Virta

Common clay is a natural, fine-grained material composed of hydrous aluminum silicates. Shale is a laminated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay, mud and (or) silt. Government and legislative programs The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) invited industry to nominate representatives to a review panel that will help the EPA develop rules to regulate air toxics from the production of brick and structural clay products. The EPA was required to establish a review panel because these regulations will significantly affect small businesses. The regulation of air toxics falls under the Clean Air Act.

Jan 1, 2010

By Metehan Erdogan, Mustafa Serdal Aras, Sedef Cift Karagul, Ishak Karakaya, Esra Karakaya, Merve Kolay Ersoy

Pickling is the treatment of metal surfaces by removing oxide layer, rust, scale, inorganic contaminants or other impurities from ferrous metals, copper or precious metals. A strong inorganic acid such as hydrochloric acid is used for plain carbon or low alloy steel pickling. When the concentration of copper in the pickling solution exceeds about 100 mg/L, reversion may take place and randomly plating of copper onto the steel strips which causes visual incompatibility occur. Furthermore, efficiency of pickling decreases with the increase of copper content. The reversion may be delayed to higher Cu concentrations by adding fresh acid to the line. Increased acid consumption only delays the time to discard the solution but increases the cost and hazardous nature effect on the environment. An experimental electrochemical procedure has been conducted to remove copper from pickling solution to reduce the concentration below 100 mg/L. Within this scope, effects of applied current density, copper concentration and electrolysis duration on copper deposition were studied. Current density was determined as the most effective parameter to remove copper from the regenerated pickling solutions of steel plants.

Mar 1, 2018

By H. M. Lewis

The current status of the international zinc market is summarized, and a supply /demand outlook is presented for the next five years. A number of technical problems facing the industry are outlined. Introduction ZINC has sometimes been called the unknown metal. Considering that on a world basis it ranks third among non-ferrous metals in production and consumption, zinc retains a certain modesty. It has no distinctive colour like copper, lacks the low density of aluminum or magnesium and is not always easy to identify as a product. The 'spangle' of galvanized steel is probably zinc's most distinguishing feature. The purpose of this article is to develop an over-all review of zinc. Starting with the current position of the metal, the major factors that will shape its future will be described so that an assessment of the outlook for zinc can be made.

Jan 1, 1978

By Reno H. Sales

The syngenetic, metamorphic water, and source bed concept theories of ore deposition proposed by Anton Gray, C, Lo Knight and others, to explain ores in sedimentary rocks, are challenged on the basis of a survey of the literature and personal observation, A hydrothermal origin for the Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt deposits is indicated by the presence of post-Roan age igneous rocks and post-gabbro mineralization, the wide distribution of ore in the various Lower Roan lithologic types, and the zoning of the copper-iron sulphlde minerals and minor elements The proposal by Gray and Knight that igneous rocks are not favorable as guides to nonferrous metal deposits, and Gray's hypothesis that the redistribution of connate waters and their dissolved metals by metamorphic processes was responsible for the emplacement of ores, are rejected as contrary to field evidence, The absence of exposed potential igneous source rocks is shown to be an invalid argument for the proponents of any syngenetic hypothesis, The common association of ore deposits with calc-alkaline intrusive rocks and their derivatives is, however, demonstrated to be convincing evidence that an exploration program based upon a magmatic theory of origin, would have found most of the important known non-ferrous metal deposits of the world, It is urged that prospecting be continued on the sound basis of accumulated knowledge of the lithologic and structural facts surrounding known ore deposits.

Jan 1, 1960