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By D. Lui, B. G. Thomas, B. Ho

"Results from mathematical models and plant experiments are combined to quantify the effect of transverse depressions and oscillation marks on heat transfer in the continuous casting mold. A heat transfer model has been developed to calculate transient heat conduction within the solidifying steel, coupled with the steady-state heat conduction with the continuous casting mold wall. The model features a detailed treatment of the interfacial gap between the shell and mold, including mass and momentum balances on the solid and liquid powder layers. The model predicts the solidified shell thickness down the mold, temperature in the mold and shell, thickness of the resolidified and liquid powder layers, heat flux distribution down the mold, mold water temperature rise, ideal taper of the mold walls, and other related phenomena. The important effect of non-uniform distribution of superheat is incorporated using the results from previous 3-D turbulent fluid flow calculations within the liquid cavity. Results from plant experiments confirm that transverse surface depressions and oscillation marks form at the meniscus and move down the mold. Measurements of mold thermocouple temperatures and breakout shell thickness were used to calibrate the models. The results indicate that the surface depressions and oscillation marks are filled with mold flux, but still have a significant effect on decreasing heat transfer. The predicted mold temperature fluctuations are consistent with measurements. If the depressions become filled with air, their effect is greatly increased. These results should be useful in the difficult task of interpreting transient mold thermocouple signals for on-line quality monitoring.IntroductionMany different types of intermittent surface defects on steel slabs arise during initial solidification in the mold of the. continuous casting machine. These defects include deep oscillation marks, surface depressions, and cracks. They may lead to quality problems, such as slivers, in the final rolled product. In severe cases, breakouts may occur, where liquid steel bursts through a thin section of the shell and drains over the casting machine below the mold."

Jan 1, 1997

By Philip E. J. Green

Two of the cornerstones of total quality management, the use of statistical and problem solving tools, and the involvement of employees, are directly applicable to environmental protection. The reduction in variation decreases the chances of violations and mishaps. Involving employees in minimizing environmental impacts is critical. One mistake, even with the best technology, and your plant can be shut down, customers lost and fines and penalties imposed - your reputation and the environment damaged. Proven strategies for involving employees in environmental protection, and over-coming the frequently strong differences of opinions about what constitutes environmental protection, will be discussed.

Jan 1, 1992

By Mark Osborne, Ray D. Peterson, C. Edward Eckert

"The theoretical melting energy requirement for a typical hypoeutectic aluminum-silicon alloy is approximately 520 BTU/lb. It has been demonstrated, however, that even a state of the art secondary processing-automated lost foam casting operation can exceed this value by at least an order of magnitude when the actual thermal energy input from melting to solidification is monitored. Metal transfer and holding operations constitutes over 65% of this expenditure. The authors present relative benchmark energy expenditure information by unit operation for an offsite melting/lost foam casting line with a daily throughput in excess of 100,000 lbs. Efficiency improvements through optimization of the current process, and anticipated energy values at the culmination of a U.S. Department of Energy sponsored project to develop, integrate and demonstrate an advanced melting, transportation, and dispensation system will be cited.IntroductionThe size of the U.S. aluminum remelt pool was approximated to be 14.21 billion kg (31.27 billion pounds) by a recent study?, with the engineered castings (foundry) sector accounting for 3.25 billion kg (7.16 billion pounds) or 23% of that total. This study considered overall process yield and all major contributors to scrap. The values cited, therefore, are more meaningful than simply tabulating annual pounds shipped by sector.The foundry sector consists of Sand Castings, PM Castings and Die Castings categories appearing in Figure 1. All other categories comprise the wrought alloy sector. Wrought alloy production enjoys an energetic benefit from both scale and a relatively continuous operation. Many foundry operations, however, operate in batch mode at less than design metal throughput with characteristically longer melt holding periods. Since any detention of molten metal beyond melting represents an overhead use of energy, melt holding (secondary) energy expenditures can appreciably inflate melting energy requirements in the foundry."

Jan 1, 2009

By Joël P. T. Kapusta

Although Peirce-Smith converting remains the workhorse in matte converting, the copper and nickel industries are still confronted with production hindrances such as tuyere blockage, excessive refractory wear and limits in the oxygen enrichment levels of the blast air. The knowledge acquired on high-pressure gas injection technology as well as the invention of the concentric tuyere for steelmaking led to the development of the Air Liquide Shrouded Injector (ALSI) technology for copper and nickel converting. Following a technology demonstration in 1997-98 with four shrouded injectors installed in a Peirce-Smith converter, Falconbridge Limited implemented ALSI Technology on a commercial scale in May 1999 as an integral part of its new Slag Make Converter at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. The paper presents the various aspects of commissioning ALSI Technology, as well as the operating changes and injector design modifications over the five years the shrouded injectors have been in operation.

Jan 1, 2005

By David G. Dixon, Maziar Eghbalnia

"Gold and silver nanoparticles (NPs) were deposited on pyrite at ambient temperature from colloidal solutions prepared by reduction of hydrogen tetrachloroaurate or silver nitrate by sodium sulfide or sodium tetrahydridoborate. The nanoparticles were characterized using Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and the experimental spectra were fitted using Mie - Gans modeling. The modified pyrite was investigated using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). Electrodes were prepared from both natural and modified pyrite samples and were modeled using an equivalent circuit (EC) based on the EIS data. The comparison of the results revealed a decrease in charge transfer resistance for the ferric ferrous redox couple associated with the modified pyrite. From this behavior it is concluded that the electronic transport between the nanoparticles and the electrode surface over distances in nanometer scale is enhanced. Nanoparticles below a certain size act as quantum dots due to electronic confmement. Decreased charged transfer resistance at the nanometer scale may be caused by electron transport through tunneling mechanism via quantum dots.IntroductionIn recent years, considerable attention has been focused on the synthesis and study of Metal nanoparticles due to their potential applications in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, material science and their interdisciplinary fields[!]. When material is nano-sized, the physical properties deviate markedly from those of bulk material, however, this effect is highly dependent on the particle size, interparticle distance, and morphology of the nanoparticles [2].An extremely small region of space defmed in a semiconductor material in order of nanometers is called a quantum dot, a term coined by Reed [3]. The three dimensional confinement of quantum dots can change properties of the excitons in comparison to free excitons in a bulk material [4]. Nanoparticles behave electronically as zero-dimensional (restricted in all three dimensions) quantum dots when the de Broglie wavelength of the valence electrons and the particle are in the same size range.As Reed [3] explains electrons confined in a plane have no freedom to move the third dimension. Those confined in a quantum wire are only free to move in one dimension, and those confined in a quantum dot are not free in to move in any dimension. An electron inside a cube of material IO nm on a side is confined to a point."

Jan 1, 2012

By Robert E. (Bob) Brown

Magnesium was discovered by Davy in 1808. The production processes as they exist are not economically competitive with aluminum The electrolytic magnesium process is divided into two steps; one to make the MgCh feed and the other to apply large amounts of electric current to dissociate the feed into magnesium (450 g) and chlorine (1200 g). The production of fuJIy anhydrous, pure cell feed is a major problem Recently, there has been a growth of thermal processes, mainly the Pidgeon silicothermic production process using FeSi to reduce dolomite in horizontal retorts. Pechiney has a large vertical electrical furnace process that also uses FeSi to reduce calcined dolomite in a molten bath containing alumina. Work is proceeding to develop new or modified processes that will greatly improve magnesium production. The present methods and the research and R&D will be reviewed in this paper.

Jan 1, 2001

By R. J. Kuczynski

The U.S. Bureau of Mines Reno Research Center operated a batch pilot plant to demonstrate high-temperature cyanide leaching for recovering platinum group metals (PGM) from automobile catalysts. Approximately 1,600 kg of used pellet, monolith, and metal support catalyst containing 1,680 g (54 tr oz) of PGM were processed. Forty-five-kilogram batches of used catalyst were leached with sodium cyanide solution at 160° C for 1 h under basic conditions in a countercurrent processing sequence to dissolve the PGM. Extractions from the used pellet catalyst ranged from 94 to 95 pct for Pd, 95 to 97 pct for Pt, and 64 to 81 pct for Rh. Extractions from the used monolith catalyst ranged from 7B to BB pct for Pd, 75 to 90 pct for Pt, and 43 to 71 pct for Rh. Heating the pregnant leach solutions to 275' C for 4 h destroyed the PGM-cyanide complexes, resulting in over 99.7 pct of the PGM precipitating from solution. The PGM precipitate was predominantly a powder metallic concentrate, typically analyzing greater than 50 pct PGM. Heating destroyed cyanide to less than 0.2 mg/L. Both the pellet and monolith residues were evaluated for disposal using the EPA Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure.

Jan 1, 1995

By Ali Hasham

Reduction rates of FeO in CaO-SiO2-Al2O3 slags by Fe-C melts have been investigated experimentally at 1723 K. The rates were estimated using experimentally determined CO(g) evolution rates. Flash X-ray images were employed to visualize the behavior of the melt-slag interface during the reactions. The influence of melt interface was examined by conducting two types of experiments - (i) dropping one (or several) Fe-C droplet(s) weighing 2 g into the molten slag bath, and (ii) dropping a small amount (10-30 g) of slag onto a Fe-C melt weighing 400 g. The rates from both types of experiments were compared and analyzed to determine the rate limiting steps. It was established that neither the carbon transport in the Fe-C melt, nor the transport of gas species in the gas film adjacent to Fe-C melt was responsible in limiting the reaction rate. It is possible that the slag phase mass transport may be controlling the initial reduction rate in the droplet experiments. However, a, different mechanism was responsible in limiting the reduction reaction when the overall %C in the droplets fell to about 2-3.

Jan 1, 1992

Two pilot-plant investigations were conducted in which strong-base resins were compared with activated carbon for the extraction of gold cyanide from leached pulp from the Golden Jubilee Mine. The results show that gold can be recovered with carbon, but that the extraction efficiency is poor, probably because high concentrations of humic and fulvic acids are. present m the pulp. .However the extraction of gold cyamde from this material with strong-base resins JS very effo:1ent, and the overall efficiency of extraction is better with resin than with carbon, even when the concentration of resin is one-third that of carbon, and the flowrate of resin is one-third that of carbon. The results of the pilot-plant campaign reported in this paper led to the conversion of the Golden Jubilee plant from carbon-in-pulp to resin-in-pulp in February 1988.

Jan 1, 1989

By Jerome P. Downey

Technologies developed within the field of extractive metallurgy to recover, concentrate, and purify metals and industrial minerals from ores, have served as the foundation for all of the subsequent environmental remediation, materials recycling, and waste management technologies. This paper discusses the application of classical extractive engineering principles to the development of a thermal process for the recovery of mercury from solid wastes. Process development is presented as a series of logical stages, which begin with a thorough characterization of the site-specific waste, move on to bench and pilot scale testing of the process options, and end with a functional process flowsheet. This paper also presents thermodynamic data on many mercury species of interest to the minerals, power, and chemical industries. These data can be used to model the speciation and recovery of the mercury as a function of various process parameters.

Jan 1, 2003

By Mehdi Asadi, Heinz Palkowski

"In recent years, the increased demand for advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) mainly had been driven by the need of the automotive industry to reduce weight and to improve safety. Beside good ductility and high strength, those steels have a high bake hardening (BH) effect, giving additional contribution to the strength of structural parts, subjected to the paint baking process. In this paper we concentrate results gained for hot rolled dual phase (DP) steels.For the simulation of changing process conditions within the final hot rolling the specimens were hot deformed using different schedules of temperatures and reductions, selected according to the non-recrystallization temperature (TnRX). It was possible to refine the DP steel structure by control-ling the deformation temperature and the amount of strain below TnRX during the thermo-mechanical controlled processing (TMCP). This structure refinement resulted in an improvement of the strength and BH behaviour. A wide spectrum of mechanical properties could be obtained depending on the different hot deformation schedules. The best strength and BH levels were recorded for the deformation below TnRX at the highest amount of strain.IntroductionDP steels are characterized by a good formability, high strength and a good compromise between strength and ductility [1]. Moreover, the DP steels exhibit a continuous yielding behaviour, low yield point and a high strain-hardening coefficient [2]. Furthermore, the DP steels often show a large potential for bake hardening (BH). BH refers to the increase in yield strength as a result of the paint baking treatment of the shaped auto-body parts. The primary mechanism that causes the additional strengthening is the immobilization of dislocations by the segregation of interstitial atoms, known as classical static strain aging [3]. The increase of strength thus achieved allows a further reduction of sheet thickness and improves the crash safety and the dent resistance. The BH of special steel qualities is technically used in DP, where e.g. the increase in strength is realized in the final heat treatment [4]. Previous own investigations [5-6] stated that the BH effect of DP is much stronger than that one for conventional BH steels."

Jan 1, 2012

By E. Maziar Sauber

In order to prepare a more desirable feedstock for a rare earth elements separation refinery, cerium, a penalty element in the refinery feedstock, should be removed from the mixed rare earth elements oxide or carbonate feedstock. In this study, cerium (III) to cerium (IV) oxidation by calcium hypochlorite and subsequent precipitation was used to remove cerium from a mixed rare earth elements chloride solution. A factorial design of experiments was used to determine the effect of process variables such as temperature, pH, and oxidizer addition on the oxidation of cerium (III) using synthetic solutions. Under certain test conditions, all of the cerium was successfully removed from the chloride solution, and some REE accompanied cerium and reported to the precipitate. This proposed technology can allow for low cost removal of cerium from mixed rare earth elements chlorides.

By Gordon A. Irons

"Powder injection for melt refining is widely practiced in the steel industry, and is gaining acceptance in the non-ferrous industries. In these commercially-important systems, the thermodynamics and kinetics may be very complicated. More than one element may be removed by refining, and often the refining agents are not just one compound. In this paper, the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of these processes are reviewed. A number of examples are given, such as the desulphurization of iron with a variety of reagent mixtures, and selenium removal from copper with several different reagent combinations.IntroductionI am very pleased and honored to present a paper at this Symposium recognizing the many contributions of Professor Howard Womer. Even at the time I was an undergraduate student, the WORCRA process was part of the curriculum. I remember at the time that I was fascinated by the concept, and due to it and the many other rapid developments in Process Metallurgy, I chose it as my field of study. I think the Symposium is testimony that Professor Womer has touched the lives of many others as well.My original assignment was an overview of the basic aspects of gas and solids injection. However, I reviewed most of this material at the Savard/Lee Symposium [1]. In the present paper, I will present some of the basic issues related to refining with powder injection, using work that we have recently completed in both ferrous and non-ferrous systems."

Jan 1, 1996

By N. L. Piret

In copper smelting minimization of solid waste generation is receiving increased attention with more stringent environmental legislation and lower disposal space availability. Copper smelting slags generally being valorizable, solid waste generation is attributed to the presence in the feed of unvalorizable impurities which do not report to the slag and to the unavoidable formation of contaminated dilute acid solutions which need neutralization. As to unvalorizable impurities, solid waste minimization is achieved by rejecting them in the highest possible concentration. Dilute acid is mainly due to the formation of SO3 in the smelter gases and to the discard of decopperized bleed-off electrolyte. Its generation is substantially lowered by preventing SO3 formation, by converting the dilute acid to a valorizable product, e.g., by thermal decomposition for H2S04 recovery or by precipitation as chemical gypsum, and by suitable treatment of the bleed-off electrolyte for impurity removal. Industrial processes are evaluated and alternatives are discussed.

Jan 1, 1994

By Kathryn C. Sole

A novel solvent-extraction process for the refining of gold was recently commercialised, with the commissioning in May 1997 of a 24 t a-' refinery at Harmony Gold Mine in Virginia, South Africa. The MinataurTM Process (Mintek Alternative Technology for Au Refining) uses solvent-extraction technology to produce gold of 99.99% purity from the cathode sludge arising from a conventional carbon-in-pulp / electrowinning circuit. Implementation of this process introduces significant cost benefits compared with the conventional dore smelting / toll-refining route previously followed. This paper outlines the process, presents selected operating results obtained during the first few months of operation, and provides some details of the associated techno-economic advantages.

Jan 1, 1998

By Sven Reutzel

Investigations show that Co-based melts embedded by glass flux in a crucible can be under- cooled nearly as strong as samples processed containerlessly by electromagnetic levitation. This allows to measure magnetic susceptibility on undercooled melts while combining the use of a Faraday-balance and undercooling technique. The magnetic susceptibility of Co and Co-based alloys (such as Co-Pd and Co-Cu) is investigated as a function of temperature from superheated to undercooled state. This is done by measuring the change of magnetic force F, on a sample in a constant magnetic field Bo and an additional gradient field by means of a Faraday-balance. When liquid Co-based alloys are undercooled the magnetisation steeply rises if temperature approaches the Curie temperature. The magnetisation is measured for some Co-based alloys in liquid state as a function of alloy system and its concentration. The results show that the magnetic susceptibility of the liquid undercooled samples follows a Curie-Weiss behaviour, from which Curie temperature and magnetic moments for the liquid state are inferred.

Jan 1, 2002

By I. M. Richardson, M. Janssen, W. Geerstma, I. J. Bennett, V. A. Popovich

Avoiding wafer breakage is a big challenge in the photovoltaic silicon industry, limiting production yield and further price reduction. Special fracture strength tests suitable for thin silicon solar wafers and solar cells, to be used in combination with Weibull statistics, finiteelement (FE) modelling and digital image correlation have been developed in order to study the mechanical stability of solar wafers. The results show that removal of the saw damage significantly increases the strength of crystalline silicon wafers. Furthermore, it was found that silicon crystallinity and the location where the wafer is extracted from the cast Si ingot have a significant effect on the strength, namely samples taken from the bottom of the ingot are 30% stronger than those taken from the top. The study also showed that there is a decrease in fracture strength when an anti-reflective SiNx coating is applied, which is caused by high thermal stresses.

Jan 1, 2015

By Vinay Kumar, Manis Kumar Jha, J. Rajesh Kumar, Archana Kumari, Rekha Panda, Jin Young Lee

Rare earth metals (REMs) play a significant role in the manufacture of permanent magnets, fluorescent lamps, catalysts, medicines, super alloys etc. Recently, China, which controls 97% of world trade in REMs, imposed restriction on its export. Consequently, the global demand of REMs is escalating and is expected to exceed the supply by 40,000 tonnes annually. Present review paper reports the flow-sheets of commercial processes based on pyro-hydro and hybrid techniques as well as systematic research for process development to recover REMs from primary and secondary resources. This review paper also reports the recommendation and future prospective to fulfill its demand and supply gap keeping in view environmental prospective.

Jan 1, 2014

By Oluwatosin A. Aladejebi, Apsara S. Jayasekara, Raymond J. Longbottom, Mark Reid, Marc in het Panhuis, Brian J. Monaghan

The coke analogue is a new research tool that has been developed to quantify and characterize the effect minerals in coke have on coke reactivity. The analogue material is made from a number of different carbon or carbon containing materials and minerals to in part replicate real industrial coke’s reactivity behavior. Elucidation of the effects of minerals on coke reactivity has proved difficult due to the complex and heterogeneous nature of industrial coke and the potential non-additive effects of minerals on coke reactivity. The coke analogue addresses this complexity and heterogeneity through control of its mineralogy, mineral size and mineral dispersion through the analogue, porosity and carbon structures. Initial studies using the analogue were focused on coke dissolution kinetics in liquid iron but recent work has focused in characterization of its porosity, carbon structure and rate of reaction.

Jan 1, 2014

By Zhou Shu-cai

"A method has been proposed for the pre-treatment of high phosphorus iron ore by carbothermic reduction assisted with microwave irradiation and magnetic separation on a laboratory scale. Chemical analysis of the reduced ore sample, the metal sample and the slag sample were conducted. Based on the above research, the influences of carbon addition, microwave power and microwave irradiation time on the recovery of Fe and dephosphorization were discussed. It indicated that the increase of microwave irradiation time and power had substantial effect on the recovery of Fe while the influence of carbon addition was not obvious and the highest iron recovery ratio reaches some 95.5% when the dephosphorization ratio was 37.68%. A high iron recovery ratio and a reasonable dephosphorization rate were incompatible under the conditions investigated in this study due to the reduced iron and because unreduced P-contained gangues were not efficiently separated. This method may provide a reference for the future utilisation of high-phosphorus iron ore.IntroductionWith the rapid growth of crude steel production in China, the source of iron ore tends to become increasingly strained and is facing the risks of raw material shortage for the iron and steel industry. In order to decrease the production cost, China has to focus on the utilization of its domestic low grade iron ores for the iron and steel plants [1-2]. China has a large deposit of high phosphorous iron ore with a reserve of 7.45 billion tons which is unused in any large scale [3]. Therefore, the development of a successful and economically viable technology for high phosphorus iron ore is of profound importance. To remove phosphorus from the high phosphorus iron ore, several mineral and metallurgical processes have been proposed, such as bio-leaching [4], roasting reduction plus melting separation [5], pre-reduction and screening methods combined with mechanical crushing or air jet milling[6] selective agglomeration plus reverse flotation [7]. However these processes are not cost effective or are time consuming. The traditional pyrometallurgical process( BF+ BOF) refuse this kind of ore mainly because that molten iron is saturated with carbon or high carbon content and thus all phosphor us in the burden goes to the molten iron[8]. Therefore, it is important to exploit the cheap and abundant high phosphorus iron ore as a resource in ironmaking. In recent years, the microwave was widely introduced as a heat resource for extractive metallurgy of iron ore or other minerals. For example, microwave assisted ore milling, microwave assisted carbothermic reduction of metal oxides and microwave assisted mineral leaching issues[9-10]"

Jan 1, 2014