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BARBOUR, PERCY E., Deputy Supt., (Captain), New York State Troopers; Captain, 22nd Regiment, N. Y. N. G. BARLING, 1i. B., 1st Lieutenant, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. CHAPMAN, R. H., Major, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. DUNN, THEODORE S., 1st Lieutenant, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. DWIGHT; ARTHUR S., Major, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. FORBES, CARROLL R., Captain, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps. GOODSPEED,. G. E., JR., 1st Lieutenant, Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps.

Jan 7, 1917

By T. C. M. Pillay, John Chipman

The Si-0 equilibrium in liquid iron was investigated in some detail by Gokcen and Chipman1 who reported equilibrium constants of the following reactions: In each case the thermodynamic equilibrium constant K was obtained by extrapolating K' to infinite dilution. Their results on reaction [I] were consistent with those of earlier observers, and there seems to be little doubt as to the approximate validity of the equilibrium product determined. On the other hand, the results on reactions [2] and [3] indicated unusual curvilinear relationships between the activity coefficients of silicon and of oxygen and the silicon concentration. Since a linear relation is observed in all other similar instances, it was concluded that some source of error had affected the gas-metal equilibrium relationships. Recently the authors undertook a restudy of these equilibria with the view especially to establishing the equilibrium constant of reaction [2]. Their experiments, however, were discontinued before a tbroughly satisfactory answer had been obtained and consequently have remained unpublished until the present time. Quite recently Matoba, Gunji, and Kuwana2 published the results of a very thorough study of these equilibria. It is the purpose of the present note to Compare these three sets of experimental data, a comparison which leads to Confirmation of the results of Matoba and coworkers. The experimental arrangements described by Dutilloy and Chipman were employed. A controlled mixture of Hz, H,0, and argon was led into the induction furnace over the surface of the Fe-Si melt contained in a silica crucible. On account of the slow approach to equilibrium, runs were continued for at least 8 hr and, in some cases, as much as 12 hr. Samples were taken by means of silica tubes at the start and during the final 4-hr period of each run. Out of twelve runs only seven appeared to have approached equilibrium with sufficient certainty to be reported here. The results of these experiments, all at 1600°c, are shown by the triangles in Fig. 1. Equilibrium was approached from both oxidizing and reducing conditions and the direction of approach is indicated by the shape of the triangle. Attempts to extend the study to higher silicon concentrations were unsuccessful on account of the transfer of silica from the metal bath to the upper portions of the crucible by means of a silicon-monoxide mechanism. Matoba, Gunji, and Kuwana used similar methods and approached equilibrium from both sides. Their results at three temperatures are shown by the solid lines of Fig. 1. A line corresponding to 1600 deg is interpolated from their equations and is shown by the dotted line. The results of Gokcen and Chipman at 1600 deg in the range 0.02 to 2.0 pct Si are also shown. At concentrations up to about 0.6 pct Si, these investigators approached equilibrium from both directions, and their results in this range appear to be trustworthy. Above 1 pct Si, however, all of their experiments involved oxidation only, as shown by a decrease in the silicon content of the bath. It now seems certain that they failed to reach equilibrium at these higher silicon concentrations and that the curvilinear relation shown by their results is incorrect. It is evident that their results in the lower silicon range are in good agreement with those of Matoba and coworkers. In fact, a straight line drawn through their results would parallel the dotted line and would differ from it by only 0.05 in log K. The new data also lie close to that line. It may thus be concluded that the three sets of data are in good agreement and that the equations proposed by Matoba and coworkers for reaction [2] are satisfactory . They take the limiting value of log K', at 0 pct Si as log K ,. The slope of each line gives the value

Jan 1, 1962

By H. J. Struth

The benefits of proration of oil production were perhaps more concretely realized in 1932 than at any time since the oil industry adopted nation-wide production control. Reduced output of crude petroleum, which brought the daily average of the United States down to approximately 2,000,000 bbl. from a peak in 1931 of more than 2,600,000, had a telling effect on the trend of oil prices. Mid-Continent crude was advanced in price from 776, for 36-gravity oil, to $1.04 a barrel. California crude, of 26-gravity at Signal Hill, moved forward from 736 to 976 a barrel. Pennsylvania crude, the only exception to the upward trend, rose in price from $1.82 per barrel to $2.02, only to react to $1.72. This was due to local conditions which necessitated an adjustment to overcome competition from other areas of the United States. East Texas continued to exert a far-reaching influence on the crude and gasoline market during 1932. Despite the fact that oil prices were advanced in most fields, large quantities of oil were produced in East Texas in violation of state proration orders, and sold in the market at prices considerably below official postings. This created competitive conditions in the gasoline market that were felt by all refining centers of the United States. The quantity of gasoline produced from cheap East Texas crude was not large, but the volume was sufficient to influence prices in practically all sections of the country. Thus, while the industry's' economic situation showed visible improvement statistically, the unreported and unseen statistics originating in East Texas proved to be an insurmountable obstacle to the economic betterment that was otherwise apparently justified. Somewhat surprising to many was the fact that gasoline consumption was maintained within 10 per cent of the preceding year. Domestic consumption showed only a net decline under 1931 of about 8.5 per cent; exports dropped in volume to the extent of about 23 per cent. As a matter of fact, domestic gasoline consumption was only about 1.4 per cent less than it was in the predepression year of 1929. Exports, however,

Jan 1, 1933

Jan 1, 1970

By N. A. Gjostein

The real and apparent dependence of the surface self-diffusion coefficient, Ds, of gold on crystallo-graphic orientation has been investigated by isolated scratch smoothing and grain boundary grooving experiments. No systematic variation of Ds with orientation was found along the [100] zone. In view of the experimental scatter in these results, however, only aniso-tropy ratios, p, greater than -1.3 would be detectable. Anomalously low values of Ds were found on the [0ll] and [110] zones when the diffusion direction lies along (the scratch or grain boundary groove is perpendicular to) these zones. By comparing these results with a previous y plot study of gold, it is hypothesized that this is not an intrinsic diffusivity effect, but rather it results from a decreased driving force for mass transfer at orientations where the y-plot curvature is negative and appreciable in magnitude relative to y. The characteristics of this type of anisotropy do not appear sEVERAL investigations1-7 have dealt with the anisotropy of the surface self-diffusion coefficient, Ds, of metals as measured by the decay of single or multiple to be in agreement with the hypothesis of fast diffusion along ledges in the surface structure. In certain cases the Fourier method of determining Ds, described in Paper I of this series9 was compared with the second moment analysis in order to determine whether or not the method of analysis affects the anisotropy ratio. While the type of analysis does influence the magnitude of the anisotropy ratio, this effect is not associated with the shape of the profile, but rather is connected with the iterative volume diffusion correction used in conjunction with the second moment analysis. It is further demonstrated that the volume diffusion correction can be too large by either method when the y-plot curvature effect is large. Certain orientations exhibit an unusual temperature dependence of Ds ; this is discussed in terms of the y-plot curvature effect and/or the influence of impurities on Ds . scratches in the surface. Depending on the system investigated, both large1"3'6'7 and small4'5 anisotropies in Ds have been found. Although adsorbed impurities undoubtedly play an important role in determining the magnitude of the anisotropy,8 there are other factors that can give rise to an apparent anisotropy in Ds, thus obscuring the true nature of an intrinsic anisotropy in

Jan 1, 1968

By Arthur V. Corry

GOLD was discovered in Alder Gulch, Virginia. City, Mont., on May 26, 1863. In a short time some 6000 people flocked to the new discovery, and on the banks of Alder Gulch six settlements sprang into existence, the principal one, Virginia City, alone surviving. This town today has a population of 800, and is the county seat of Madison County. It is estimated that between forty and fifty million dollars in gold was produced up to 1904. Virginia City is situated at the mouth of Alder Creek where that stream leaves the narrow canyon that cuts the steep foothills flanking Old Baldy Mountain, elevation 9572 ft., 12 mi. south. Virginia City itself is 5700 ft. above sea level.

Jan 1, 1936

By K. L. Fetters, F. M. Walters

ALL previous records were broken by the Iron and Steel Division, in the number of sessions, the number of papers, and the attendance. In addition to ten papers (all preprinted) on properties, structure, aid hardenability of, carbon and alloy steels, eight formal papers were presented on one or more phases of steelmaklng, and a symposium on the determination of hydrogen and nitrogen in steel. This last started at 2 p.m. and was going strong with more than a third of the audience still present at 6 p.m.

Jan 1, 1944

By John Chipman, Wayne L. Worrell

Using recent thermodynamic data for the carbides and oxides of tantalum, columbium, and vanadium, the stable solid phases aboue 1300°K and at 1 atm CO(g) pressure in each M-C-O system have been determined. Pourbaix-Ellingham diagrams have been constructed and are used to estimate the minimum temperatures necessary to obtain these metals by carbothermic reduction under reduced pressures. TANTALUM, columbium, and vanadium react with carbon to form the M,C and MC carbide phases. The M,C carbides have narrow homogeneity ranges, but the MC phases possess considerable ranges of homogeneity.' The free energies of formation of the MC carbides were recently measured, and those of MC and M2Ccarbides have been estimated., (The notations MC and MC denote, respectively, the carbide compositions at the carbon-rich and at the metal-rich boundaries of the homogeneous MC phase.) In this paper, these carbide data are combined with thermodynamic data for the oxides to predict the stable phases in the Ta-C-O, Cb-C-O, and V-C-O systems at specified temperatures and oxygen pressures. M-C-O PHASE DIAGRAMS The solid phases in equilibrium above 1300°K for each M-C-0 system are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. Above 1300°K, the vapor would consist entirely of carbon monoxide; and these phase diagrams were obtained by specifying the vapor pressure of CO(g) to be 1 atm. The temperature at which any two solid phases become unstable is specified along the two-phase equilibrium lines in each diagram. To simplify the diagrams, all solid phases in the Ta-C-O and Cb-C-O systems are represented as stoichiometric compounds. However, the homogeneity ranges of VO and VC are indicated, because they form a complete series of solid solutions.3 It also should be noted that the homogeneity range of

Jan 1, 1964

By Charles Albert Ashburner

The coal-fields of the United States have been variously classified as to their geographical positions. In 1887 I proposed slight changes to the classification generally used, for more convenient description of our coal-fields in my report on the statistical history of coal in the States during 1886 for the United States Geological Survey. This new classification seems to meet all practical requirements and has been generally adopted. The coal-areas are grouped in two divisions—the anthracite division and the bituminous division. The anthracite division, in a commercial sense, may be said to include the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania alone, although small amounts of anthracite are mined in Colorado and have been

Jan 1, 1890

By Dudley L. Davis, E. C. Peterson

INTRODUCTION THE Darwin District is 30 miles east of Olancha which is 220 miles north from Los Angeles via U. S. Highway No. 6. The ore deposits occur in the Darwin hills that have been elevated above the Darwin Plateau by typical basin and range-type faults. Some of these faults have been active quite recently as shown by the displacement of Quaternary (?) basalt flows and the rejuvenation of erosion in Darwin wash. The ore bodies occur as fissure fillings and replacement of favorable beddings in a thick series of Paleozoic limestones, dolomites, shales and quartzites. Rich oxidized lead-silver ores were discovered in the early seventies. By 1875, Darwin had a population of about 5000, and by 1880 several small mills and smelters had been built. Early exhaustion of surface ores, the isolated location of the district, and fluctuation of metal prices caused intermittent operations until World War II. The district production is estimated at about $3,000,000 prior to 1900 and perhaps $4,000,000 between 1900 and 1945 when Anaconda purchased the major producing mines. For the past two years, daily production has averaged 75 tons of direct shipping and 150 tons of milling-grade ore. At present, 300 tons of mixed oxide and sulphide ore are treated by flotation, the oxidized lead minerals being activated by addition of sodium sulphide after galena and sphalerite have been recovered from the circuit. Extraction averages 85 pct of the lead, 80 pct of the silver, and about 33 pct of the zinc in a bulk concentrate. The mill is designed so that minor changes permit selective flotation of pyritic lead-zinc ores encountered at depth. GENERAL GEOLOGY The oldest rocks in the Darwin hills are a series of Paleozoic limestones, dolomites, shales and quartzites probably Pennsylvanian in age. These rocks have been intruded on the west by the Coso granite batholith and on the east by a granodiorite stock. Numerous sills and dikes grading from orthoclase granite to gabbro are exposed in the underground workings. The sedimentary rocks have been considerably folded and faulted, the most prominent structure being a northwest pitching anticlinal fold, the crest of which lies just west of the ridge line of the Darwin hills. The east limb of this fold has been intruded by the granodiorite stock and east of the stock the sediments show several closely spaced anticlines and synclines. The minor flexures on the west flank of the major fold are structurally important in localizing the ore in the Defiance and Essex mines of the Darwin group. There are three principal systems of faulting and fissuring, most of which are post-intrusive and premineral in age, with minor amounts of postmineral movement. The Darwin tear fault is the largest, most persistent fault in the district. It strikes N 60 to 95°W, dips steeply south and is traceable for about 1o miles. It is a normal

Jan 1, 1947

By H. H. Stoek

MINE models have three distinct uses: 1. As exhibits in expositions and museums. 2. As exhibits in law suits. 3. As illustrations in teaching mining engineering. All three uses are in a sense educational. The third, or distinctively teaching function, has not been extensively developed in America as it has been abroad, chiefly because of the cost of the models and the scarcity of model makers. In connection with expositions, such as the Columbian, the Louisiana Purchase, and the Panama-Pacific, a number of very good mine and metallurgical models were prepared with funds furnished by State commissions, by mining organizations or mining companies. At the close of these, expositions, some of these models have been deposited in National or State museums or in educational institutions, but too many of them have been lost, or have been stored, away in some mining company's office or in the basement of some State building, where they have been lost sight of and have gradually fallen to pieces. A visitor to a German mining school is impressed by two facts: 1. The mining laboratories are in general inferior to those in America. 2. The mining museums are infinitely superior -to ours, particularly in models exhibited. One may reply to this comparison by saying that a museum is necessarily a work of time. From the historical standpoint this is, of course, true, but it is not necessarily true in connection with a working museum intended to illustrate current practice. For instance, the oldest mining school in Germany, that at Freiberg, has much excellent historical material, but very little on modern practice, while Berlin, one of the youngest German mining schools, has a most extensive and valuable collection of modern appliances and models. This is true in spite of the fact that one of the best-known model shops is at Freiberg, from which many of, the models to be seen in America have come. Because many of the models in American mining schools have come from

Jan 4, 1917

By Arthur Notman

THE COMMITTEE on Production Control of the Institute has accomplished little or nothing tangible during the last year. For this the chairman must accept responsibility and whatever praise or blame goes with it. However, we have all had plenty of opportunity to observe the results obtained by various producing groups in their attempts to regulate production to meet demand dur¬ing the last few years. It would be putting it mildly to say that these have not been such as to inspire confidence in the methods pursued. The present plight of the wheat, cotton, coffee and sugar growers; the oil, copper, lead, zinc and tin producers, to name a few of the unfortunates, suggests a common cause perhaps beyond their control. There is a growing tendency to question as outmoded the theories of laissez faire economics, with its laws of competition, supply and demand, with price as the automatic regulator. The position is maintained that something new should be substituted because these laws no longer work. Many solutions are offered, ranging in the world at large from the planned economy of Russia, with the profit element removed, to the military controlled economy of Fascism, and in our own country from voluntary curtailment to martial law. But one hardly feels driven by any irresistible logic to put his finger on any one of these proposals, and to say this is the one in which I believe. On turning to one's neighbors, one is still more confused by the realization that this intellectual uncertainty is wide-spread. Isolation or cooperation, protection or free trade, the gold standard, bimetallism or managed currencies, de¬flation or inflation, all have their proponents in whose eyes one or the other of these slogans will afford the panacea for all our ills.

Jan 1, 1933

Jan 1, 1902

By S. Ramachandran, N. J. Grant, T. B. King

MANY investigations of the rate of the sulfur transfer reaction between carbon-saturated iron and blast furnace type slags have been made." It is evident that the reaction is complex, the rate being affected by the presence of elements dissolved in the metal that are readily oxidized and therefore capable of existing in the slag phase. Thus Goldman, Derge, and Philbrook- have shown that carbon, silicon, manganese, and aluminum, in order of increasing effectiveness, accelerate sulfur transfer from iron containing these elements to blast furnace type slags. Quantitative information is still, however, not available on the relation between what have been termed side reactions, such as silicon transfer and CO evolution, and the sulfur transfer reaction itself. In other words, the stoichiometry of the reaction has not been investigated. In the present investigation, the transfer of all reacting elements and the evolution of CO have been measured simultaneously in order to establish the mechanism of the reaction which occurs in practice. Information of this nature cannot be deduced from equilibrium studies. It should be pointed out that in kinetic studies of this type quantitative conclusions are applicable only to the system studied. This restriction should be borne in mind when attempts are made to compare results from different investigations. Apparatus The apparatus used enables slag and metal samples to be taken at frequent intervals and also provides a continuous record of the amount of gas evolved. A sketch of the apparatus is given in Fig. 1. It may be considered in three sections: 1) furnace section, 2) blank volume section, and 3) pressure measuring section. The furnace section is shown in detail in Fig. 2. It consists of two graphite crucibles, C and D, super-

Jan 1, 1957

By Chester A. Fulton

SUPPLYING as it does a necessity for healthy animal and vegetable phosphate production is a most important industry. We human beings also are animal as this war so surely proves. Unlike many other elements no substitnite is available for phosphorus or its compounds. Marvelous as are modern plastics none can lake the place of phosphorus in making hone structures. As meassured in these times the phosphate industry is not a large industry. Output of phosphate rock, the original source of our agricultural and ,chemical phophates amounts to only some twelve million long tons per annum in the entire world. Phosphates are compounds of phosphorus, which is always found in nature combined with other elements. It never occurs in nature as such. The first choice of the element phosphorus is tie itself strongly to oxygen and then to water moisture - thus becomeing phosphlic acid. This phosphoric acid in turn hunts around for a base such as lime for instance and together they make phosphate of lime.

Jan 1, 1944

By Charles W. Merrill

Obsolescence in the mineral world is virtually nonexistent if the term is taken to mean that a mineral commodity, once established in commerce and industry, subsequently has fallen into disuse. We are living in an age of minerals. Each generation puts an increasing array of mineral-based commodities, in larger quantities, to more uses than ever before. Bastnasite, a museum mineral and a collector's item a few years ago, is now produced in quantity at Mountain Pass, Calif. Uranium, a minor byproduct of vanadium mining in the Rocky Mountain plateau area before World War 11, has grown to be a leading mineral product in several western States. And finally the total quantity and value of minerals both in the United States and in the World establish new records almost yearly. Surely the mineral industry as a whole is not obsolescent in our economy. Nevertheless, there are particular uses for particular minerals that are obsolescent and some applications have been supplanted entirely. Tin does not occupy the prominent place in foil manufacture that it once did, and the schoolboy's slate left most classrooms before the oldest of us were born.

Jan 9, 1964

By R. W. Stahl

Employees and dollars are necessary to all enterprises and any force, such as fire, which destroys either, can bring very serious consequences, including business failure. Since everyone acknowledges the necessity of conserving human life, we will devote most of our paper to the economic factors involved. A coal-mine fire is considerably more difficult to combat than a fire in a surface building because of the combustible surroundings in the mine, the explosive gases emitted from the coal, the suspension of explosive dust when mine timbers burn and the unsupported roof falls, the limited space in which approach to the fire can be made, and the limited avenues of escape. A survey of coal-mine-fire protection indicated that a rather low value was being placed on property and equipment. This prompted comparison with other industries. The comments made in this comparison are not intended as an indictment of the coal industry, since we do have mines that are well protected against fire, but the comments on conditions at the mines visited are factual and may help others to improve similar conditions. SURVEY PROCEDURES Plants of the steel, aluminum, rubber, chemical, and petroleum industries were surveyed, and all facets of the fire-protection scheme were covered. The industrial plant invariably had four times as much water readily available for instant use than the mine. In many mines where water is available, no equipment for applying it is provided, such as hose, nozzles, and adapters, so that time is lost in collecting this equipment. (See Table I.) EXTINGUISHERS Many more and generally larger portable extinpishers are available at the plant as compared to the mine. The extinguishers are generally placed nearer to sources of danger. In addition, respiratory protective equipment is always available at strategic points in plants but only in a few mines. (See Figs. 1 and Table 11) INSPECTING AND TESTING EQUIPMENT Plant water facilities are checked weekly and flushed at 6-month intervals, and hose is pressure-tested at least yearly; some mines check water yearly, but hose is not tested unless used. Fire extinguishers are inspected weekly in plants and completely overhauled yearly; one mine had monthly checks and overhauls only after use. FIRE BRIGADES AND TRAINING Every plant had designated fire-fighters and some complete full-time brigades; at one mine a chief mechanic was designated as being in charge of fires, and other depended entirely upon officials who might not be familiar with the equipment. COST OF FIRES AND PERCENTAGE OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN FIRE PROTECTION The direct cost of recent mine fires ranged from $128,000 to $240,000; indirect costs, such as lost tonnage, idled equipment, lost orders, and the like might run the cost to over $500,000. (See Figs. 2 and 3).

Jan 1, 1961

By H. C. George

IN 1901, the United States produced 69 million barrels of crude oil, which was 41.4 per cent of the world production. By 1931, these figures were 850 million barrels and 62.1 per cent respectively, showing over this period of thirty years an increase in the world production of 718 per cent. Over this same period, the increase in the demand for technically trained men in the industry was much greater than the increase in crude-oil production. This was because much of the increase in production was secured by the application of geology and physics to the finding of new oil fields and by .the development of engineering methods and equipment incident to drilling and producing from much greater .depths.

Jan 1, 1934

By F. C. Stanford

The work of an engineer is to direct natural forces so that the: bring about the results that he wishes to secure. Heretofore he ha concerned himself chiefly with physical forces and inanimate objects until he has secured a truly marvelous degree of control over them The great problem of the present age is to secure a like degree of know1 edge and control of the human factor. Progress has already been made along this line, but it is only a beginning. Wilhelm Ostwald says tha scientific knowledge enables a man to be a true prophet; but it must be remembered that a good many people do not seem to be able to main tain a high average in prophecy. In short, 'the average of knowledge is not equal to the average needs of the present time, but continually fails to keep pace with it. It has been aptly said that the really essentia need of the period is for more brains; if we only had sufficient knowledg and sagacity we could not only solve all difficulties, but prevent then from arising. This generalization holds good for an industrial organization. Th most vital need of the management is for more brains. The logica course for an engineer in charge of an industrial organization is, therefore to direct whatever forces may be at his command toward the development training, and guiding of all the brains in his organization. This is easie said than done, for it involves the carrying on toward two objective: the maximum of productive work, and the development of the individual who perform it. This is essentially like the rebuilding and enlarging of plant, keeping it in full operation the while. On the other hand, if th aim is merely for maximum production from an organization, withou offering opportunity for development, the final outcome will necessari be like that of a plant that is driven at full capacity without stoppin for repairs or improvements; it eventually becomes so run down th either a complete rebuilding is necessary or else it has to be abandone

Jan 1, 1918