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By Michael J. Weaver

Urban redevelopment projects are occurring more frequently than ever before as urban greenfield sites become limited and city planners and devel- opers attempt to revitalize existing underdeveloped neighborhoods. How- ever, because of the past usage of many urban sites (some dating back 100 years or more), designers and construction teams have to not only engineer founda- tions to accommodate the subsurface soil and ground water conditions, but also to work around the relic founda- tions or structures that have been left behind from previous developments. In these cases, a one-size-fits-all approach to foundations may not yield the most cost- and schedule-effective approach, and hybrid foundation systems have to be evaluated.

Apr 1, 2022

By Matt Sotirin

The Santa Fe train station and passenger rail platform were constructed in the downtown district of Fort Madison, Iowa, over a century ago. This landmark building and rail platform were in need of major renovations and rehabilitation in order to restore the site to a functioning railway train station. A multitude of key players from various public and private parties were involved in the design and construction of this project site. Part of the project consisted of constructing the passenger platform. The original design included helical piles to provide foundational support for the platform. Challenges occurred during construction due to the presence of an obstruction in the form of a poured concrete slab in the immediate area where the helical piles were to be installed. The contractor worked with the engineer of record and other consulting parties to value engineer the helical pile design and utilize self- drilling micropiles as a replacement to the specified helical pile system.

Oct 1, 2022

By Rasin Duzceer

In this paper, the results of pile load test on 24 piles from twelve sites are presented. The pile load tests were performed on 14 driven and 10 bored piles of varying diameters and lengths installed in different ground conditions in Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Kazakhstan. The purpose of this study is to evaluate and compare the axial capacity of the piles obtained using pile load test interpretation methods. Davisson, Brinch Hansen %80, Chin-Kondner, Shen-Niu, De-Beer, Housel, Mazurkiewicz, Fuller-Hoy, Brinch- Hansen (90%), Corps of Engineers, Butler Hoy and Tangent Intersection methods were used to determine the axial capacity of the piles. Static analysis using FHWA method was performed to predict the axial capacity of the piles. A statistical analysis was performed to compare and quantify the load test interpretation methods. The ratio of interpreted (Qi) to predicted (Qp) pile capacity was compared for each method. For each pile load test and for each interpretation method, the mean and coefficient of variation of (Qi)/ (Qp) were calculated. Among twelve methods investigated, the highest Qi/Qp value was obtained as 1.37 for Chin-Kondner method whereas the lowest Qi/Qp ratio of 0.70 was obtained from De Beer method.

Jan 1, 2002

By Georgette Hlepas

How often phrases like these have been made by project managers and project teams trying to explain why there has been cost growth, project delays and differing site conditions claims. But does it really take x-ray vision? Do we really approach geotechnical construction projects unprepared for the subsurface that may be encountered because we can't get the answer? Too often our industry seems to think the answer is, "yes." However, this is not because we can't understand the subsurface. All too frequently it is because a choice is made to save money or time by foregoing or shortchanging upfront subsurface investigations. This is accepting a risk at the beginning of the process and realizing it during construction. Case histories have proven time and time again that upfront investment in site exploration and constructing a ground model mitigates risk in design and construction. But how much do we prepare? What level of investigation (or investment) is appropriate? The answer of course, is it depends; how much risk are you willing to take for your project and what are the potential consequences?

May 1, 2022

By B. Philip Shull, Allen W. Cadden, Johanna M. Simon, Michael S. Senior

A 670 linear meter (2,200 linear foot) large-diameter sanitary sewer interceptor installation at depths ranging from 3 to 10 m (10 to 30 ft) below existing grade in an area with a high water table requires careful attention to design and performance of the system during construction. Highly variable soil and rock conditions at the site necessitated the design and construction of various excavation support systems along the alignment. In addition to the subsurface condition challenges faced at this site, the proposed sewer pipe was to be installed between an existing active combined sewer main and a high pressure gas main feeding the nearby city. What better way is there to monitor performance of the system than to require a detailed instrumentation system? Instrumentation system specifications and designs are becoming more commonplace in the industry, but it is always important to sit back and take a look at the whole picture. What are you looking to gain from your monitoring? What pieces of information are useful? What interpretations can you derive from the instrumentation you have selected? This paper will address the instrumentation system used to monitor the 670 m (2,200 ft) excavation from the specification requirements to the implementation and interpretation. This case history will delve into the challenges faced and methods used to overcome those challenges on this particular support of excavation (SOE) project. A combination of soldier pile, lagging and sheeting, and shoring systems was used to achieve the necessary excavation support. In designing the systems, attention was given to the configuration of the bracing system to allow the sections of largediameter pipe to feasibly be installed in the excavation while maintaining the SOE system.

By Andy Boeckmann

Engineers and owners widely recognize the benefits of foundation reuse - cost savings, reduced construction schedules and reduced environmental impacts, among others. Yet for many projects with existing foundations identified as reusable, reuse is an idea that is discussed at length before cold feet prevail. To address this disconnect, Deep Foundations Institute (DFI) formed the Foundation Reuse Task Force in 2021, which intends to promote reuse, leveraging experience among DFI members and collaborating across pertinent committees. Indeed, the task force includes about 40 members drawn from the Subsurface Characterization for Deep Foundations, Sustainability and Testing and Evaluation committees. One of the first orders of business for the task force was to create a database of successful reuse projects, developing short summary documents highlighting the database projects and recruiting reuse-focused presentations for the ITS Money program. Solid progress has been made on each front: the case history database includes 12 cases so far; the first three summary documents were recently published to DFI's website and foundation reuse projects have been well represented among the past year's ITS Money program. The reuse case history summary documents are available at www.dfi.org/foundation-reuse- case-histories; each of the three is also discussed below. The summary documents demonstrate the feasibility and benefits of foundation reuse. The documents are therefore a useful tool for foundation engineers to share with owners, structural engineers and anyone else who may be hesitant to pursue foundation reuse. The task force continues to welcome new members and anyone interested in joining can contact Andy Boeckmann. The task force is also eager to highlight additional reuse success stories. Anyone with case history information to share is also encouraged to contact Boeckmann.

Jul 1, 2022

By Charles Winter

The Ohio Department of Transpor- tation's (ODOT's) $228 million 1-480 Valley View Bridge project was needed to keep traffic flowing on one of the state's busiest freeway segments. Deterioration from age and steady high- traffic volumes necessitated the replacement of the existing decks of the I-480 east- and west-bound bridges over the Cuyahoga River Valley in suburban Cleveland. To facilitate this work without creating tremendous backups and traffic delays due to long-term lane closures, the project included design and construction of a new four-lane bridge in the median gap between the existing 1-480 bridges. Now complete, the new center bridge allows for all four lanes of I-480 to be maintained in each direction while deck replacement and other repairs are made to the existing bridges, while also providing increased capacity after project completion. ODOT awarded the project to the Walsh Design-Build Team (DBT) in late 2017. This article describes how the Walsh DBT, with Jacobs Engineering as the DBT lead design firm, incor- porated an innovative approach to the design and construction of the driven pile foundations for the new I-480 center bridge. I-480 crosses approximately 200 ft (60.9 m) above the Cuyahoga River Valley. With an overall length of 4,150 ft (1,265 m) and spans ranging from 180 to 300 ft (54.8 to 91.4 m), the design and construction of the foundations for the new center bridge were critical to the success of the project. Due to their overall height and span lengths, the foundation loads for a typical pier consisted of a factored vertical load of 22,000 kips, (100 MN) plus significant overturning forces due to horizontal loads and thermal effects.

May 1, 2022

By Kashyap Chaturvedula, Emad Farouz

The paper presents a discussion on the axial capacity of deep foundation elements bearing in the Yorktown formation in the southeastern region of Virginia. The fossiliferous marine soils of Tertiary age Yorktown formation typically consist of silty/clayey Sand or sandy Silt/Clay with varying amounts of shell fragments. The Yorktown formation is generally divided into Upper and Lower Yorktown layers depending on the shell content and the percent fines. Results of multiple load tests performed by Jacobs Engineering on auger cast piles as part of water and wastewater treatment plant expansion projects in southeastern region of Virginia are presented in this paper. The paper describes the subsurface investigation methods used to study the existing subsurface conditions and the design methodologies followed to estimate the axial capacity of the auger cast piles. The paper provides details regarding installation of test piles, instrumentation, load testing procedure, and interpretation of test results. The paper presents a comparison between the various methods of estimating axial capacity of auger cast piles based on the SPT-N values, the empirical methods for the Yorktown formation and the load test information. The paper distinguishes the side resistance values obtained within the upper and lower Yorktown formations. The paper compares the various design methods to the multiple load test results and recommends a design modification that is closer to the load test results.

By Harald P. Ludwig, Matthew J. Niermann

The support of excavation (SOE) for the Capitol Crossing project in Washington, DC consisted of a combination of soldier piles, lagging, tiebacks, braces, underpinning, single auger soil mixed (SASM) walls, micropiles, and a tiedback slurry wall. Over 130,000 square feet of SOE was installed with more than 1,300 tiebacks providing lateral support for excavation depths of up to 72 feet. Several structures including the Holy Rosary Church, the Bell Tower, the Casa Italiana, and a modern office building were supported by a combination of conventional hand dug underpinning pits, bracket piles, and stiff SASM walls. This paper will focus on the design and performance of the SOE adjacent to the Holy Rosary Church and the Bell Tower. Deflection-based design was used to estimate the movements of and limit damage to these structures. An extensive monitoring program was used to provide real time movement data. The results of

By Thomas Kennedy, Michael Bennett

"History never repeats itself, but it often rhymes." The old aphorism reflects how the study of the past may, perhaps, be most widely valued when it can be used to improve current and future decision making. The education the authors received as geotechnical graduate students certainly impressed upon them the importance of recognizing that not all wisdom is necessarily new. Much of their graduate coursework involved reading technical papers that had introduced concepts of outstanding historical significance in the field, such as pore pressure coefficients, stress paths, and the stress history and nor- malized soil engineering model. These papers gave the authors both respect for and interest in the historical develop- ment of the field. After graduation, the authors furthered and deepened this interest by continuing to expand their knowledge of the profession through both experience in practice and the review of additional literature.

Jan 1, 2023

By Anne Lemnitzer

Experimental data are the cornerstone of scientific research, providing empirical evidence to validate hypotheses, test theories, inform decision-making and help develop innovative design and analysis methods. However, beyond traditional empirical validations, experimental data have also become the most crucial component of AI algorithms, measuring the algorithms' effectiveness, and allowing engineers to ensure their reliability and applicability. The DFI "Rock Socket Project," awarded in the spring of 2018 allowed for the indispensable, experimental data-based validation of structural shear magnitudes, which have been hypothesized and discussed for years within the deep foundations community and cautiously approached by many design engineers. The fundamental project idea, i.e., the investi- gation of pile shear magnitudes through experimental research, was sparked during a heated discussion in the October 2016 Drilled Shaft Committee meeting in New York. Should we design for amplified shear at the rock socket of a drilled shaft or is this merely an artifact of the p-y design approach? Data were needed to provide consensus.

Nov 1, 2023

By Bryan Bet

Retaining wall systems of soldier pile ground anchors (SPGAs) have been used for many decades to stabilize landslide activity. Due to successful use of these walls to address slope instability on the California state highway system, their use has expanded to include larger, more complex landslide mitigations. The increase in size and scope of SPGA wall applications, combined with more stringent seismic design standards, have created new and unique challenges for design and construction. Constructability issues are revealing themselves in real time in Northern California, where the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) recently completed two large SPGA wall projects on state highways: the Peregrine Slide Project in inland Mendocino County, and the Westport Slide Complex located along coastal Highway 1. Each presented unique construction challenges that needed to be overcome quickly to make the projects successful. This article highlights some construction difficulties encountered on these projects, in greater depth, than what I covered last summer at DFI's S3: Slopes, Slides and Stabiliza- tion conference in San Francisco. Also covered are what steps were taken to overcome these difficulties, and mitigation advice for future wall designs. Specifically, ground anchor installation interference, ground anchor elongation variance, and difficulties with large diameter ground anchor drilled holes will be discussed.

Jul 1, 2022

By Ting-Wei Wang, Yung-Wen Chen

Artificial ground freezing is commonly used globally during excavation of shield tunnels and for groundwater control. It is a special construction method for temporary ground improvement that involves introducing coolant into underground pipes to freeze water in the soil. The frozen soil is cemented together as a result to form a frozen wall, which provides high strength and low permeability. Once the thickness of the ice wall reaches design requirements, underground excavation can be conducted with the coolant removed afterward to return the soil to its original state. This technique is cost-effective in scenarios where complete groundwater cut-off and excavation support are required; where work is deep underground and faces difficult ground conditions and where access restrictions limit the use of other displacement-type ground improvement techniques. Due to the demand for shield tunnel construction for utilities in Taiwan, ground freezing has become an important soil stabilization method there. In this article, we will share two brine freezing case studies and an in situ liquid nitrogen experiment that was conducted to develop this technique.

Feb 1, 2022

By Muhannad T. Suleiman

The design of deep foundations supporting heavy buildings, bridges, transmission lines, and highway structures, is governed by lateral loads in many cases. However, due to the use of empirical or semiempirical approaches to develop the soil force-displacement relationships (i.e., p-y curves), a wide range of recommendations are presented in the literature. Recent efforts by the author and co-workers enabled simultaneous direct measurements of soil-pile interaction pressure and lateral movement along the pile length, resulting in p-y curves based on direct measurement. Advanced sensors including sheet pressure sensors and shape acceleration arrays were used in these experiments. The experiments were conducted at the Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI) facility funded by the Major Research Instrumentation Program at the National Science Foundation. This paper focuses on the SSI of single laterally loaded piles. The test pile was 101.6 mm in diameter and 1.42 m long, which were installed in well-graded loose sand. This paper provides a summary of the installation and testing procedures, soil properties, pile instrumentation, measured lateral load-displacement response, strain profile along the pile length, lateral movement along the pile length and the pressures measured at the soil-pile interface. Furthermore, the paper presents measured p-y curves compared to estimated p-y curves using empirical methods available in the literature.

Jan 1, 2011

By Eric Rehwoldt, Walt Rabe, Jesús Gómez, Tim Myers

"An expansion plan for Washington Dulles International Airport is currently underway to prepare for growth at this northern Virginia facility in the future. While Dulles currently serves more than 20 million passengers a year, when the Master Plan for the Airport is fulfilled, it will be capable of handling approximately 55 million passengers a year. The current Capital Construction Program underway at Dulles will take the Airport one step closer to its full potential.As planned, work includes a new Airport Traffic Control Tower, expansion to existing concourses, a fourth runway, additional parking, and other improvements. One of the most interesting features of this project is the construction of a two-track passenger train system (Automated People Mover, or APM) linking the main terminal and concourses, which will largely replace the Mobile Lounge transportation system, thus greatly reducing surface traffic. Construction of the APM system involves deep excavations along the tunnels and at the transfer stations. This poses special challenges because the settlement-sensitive terminal, original Airport Traffic Control Tower, and concourse buildings, as well as other facilities, exist near the proposed below-ground stations. The site is also underlain by a tight grid of underground utilities that include jet fuel, gas and central communication lines, in addition to more mundane electric, sewer and water mains.One of the most interesting features of this project was the extensive and skillful utilization of micropiles for support of existing structures adjacent to the excavations. Without the use of micropiles, the cost and difficulty of the excavations would likely have been much more. Several important lessons were learned about the use of micropiles, which advance that technology.Throughout the project site, bedrock was generally encountered at 25-ft depths or more. The rock consists of micaceous and highly calcareous siltstone rock. This rock is typical of the sedimentary component of the Culpeper Basin, a Triassic Age geologic feature extending from south central Virginia to western Maryland. The siltstone beds dip gently to the west at about 10 to 20 degrees. Joint planes typically dip 60 degrees to vertical. The rock underlies a sequence of fill materials and residual soils of varying thickness."

Jan 1, 2009

By Yong Jingrong

Based on the results of several test socketed piles in Sichuan, the mechanism of the deformation for a loaded socketed piles is investigated, and the concept of the socketed effect is proposed. The bearing capacity and settlement of socketed pile are controlled directly by socketed effect, that is an important mark different from the other types of cast-in-situ piles. According to the analysis of this effect and factors interferring it, their roles are discussed with the results of test piles. In order to increase the bearing capacity of piles, the ways and methods enhancing socketed effect are recommended.

Jan 1, 1991

By Timothy C. Siegel

Drilled displacement piles (also known as augered cast-in-place displacement piles or augured, pressure grouted displacement piles) are installed by the displacement of soil and subsequent placement of fluid cement grout within the evacuated volume. Depending on the soil grain-size characteristics, soil behavior, in situ soil density, pile spacing, and pile diameter, the installation process can result in measurable densification and an increase in lateral stress. This paper examines the conditions prior to and following the installation of drilled displacement piles at sandy sites using the cone penetration test. The data support that the installation of drilled displacement piles results in a substantial increase in tip resistance.

Jan 1, 2007

By Arash Khosravifar

One of our research thrusts at Portland State University (PSU) centers on developing design guidelines for pile foundations in liquefiable, laterally spreading grounds. This research has been primarily sponsored by the DFI Committee Project Fund (CPF) program through four awards, totaling nearly $240,000 in financial support. DFI contributed half of this financial support, while the other half was contributed in-kind by PSU and DFI Project Advisory Board members. Leveraging the CPF funds, we secured an additional $550,000 in financial support from the National Science. Foundation (NSF), which has enabled our research group to continue exploring this topic and contributing to the broader engineering community's understanding of the behavior of pile foundations in liquefiable soils. The CPF funds have fostered collaborations with practitioners and researchers beyond PSU. Notable examples include collaborative research involving data from five large-scale centrifuge tests on pile-supported wharves by Steve Dickenson, Ph.D., New Albion Geotechnical; Nason McCullough, Ph.D., Jacobs Engineering and Scott Schlechter, Geotechnical Resources, as well as 1-g shake table tests of bridge pile shafts conducted by Professors Ahmed Elgamal, Ph.D., and Ahmed Ebeido, Ph.D., of the University of California, San Diego. In addition to these collaborations, our research has benefited from industry-university partnerships formed through the involvement of DFI Project Advisory Board members. Their support and feedback ensure that our research products are practical and imple- mentable in real-world projects. The impact of the CPF funds extends to supporting graduate students' theses, which were the basis for 17 technical publications. Some of these publications are expected to have a significant impact on the industry. For instance, our 2018 DFI Journal paper, co-authored by former master's student Jonathan Nasr, cur- rently with the Army Corps of Engineers, has been cited in the 2022 British Columbia Supplement to Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code S6:19. A noteworthy product of our study is a step-by-step design procedure for pile- supported wharf structures subjected to the combined effects of lateral spreading and inertial loads, outlined in a 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers' (ASCE) Journal of Geotechnical and Geo- environmental Engineering paper co- authored by former doctoral student Milad Souri, Ph.D., PE, Geotechnical Resources.

Nov 1, 2023

By Lin Li

A reliability based analysis method for a drilled shaft stabilized slope system is presented in this paper. In the past effort, a deterministic method using the limiting equilibrium method of slices for determining the global factor of safety of a slope reinforced by a row of drilled shafts was developed using the soil arching concept. The drilled shaft stabilization mechanisms for the slope were treated as the drilled shaft induced soil arching, which reduces the driving forces on the down slope side of the drilled shaft. The effect of drilled shafts induced soil arching on the reduction of the driving stresses in the limiting equilibrium slope stability analysis was quantified by the load transfer factor through extensive finite element simulation studies. A semi-empirical equation was also developed for expressing the load transfer factor as a function of the soil properties, including strength parameters and unit weight as well as the slope geometry and soil profile, the location and spacing of the drilled shaft, and the dimension of the drilled shaft. However, due to the inherent uncertainties of the soil properties and the model error of the semi-empirical load transfer equation, a modification of the deterministic method into a probabilistic method is developed in this paper. The Monte Carlo statistical method is used to generate random variables for the soil strength parameters based on the prescribed probability characteristics, including mean, COV, and the probability distribution function. In addition, the modeling error of the load transfer factor is also treated as a random variable in the Monte Carlo simulation method, in which the mean, COV, and probability distribution function for the bias of the semi-empirical equation are used. The developed theories were coded into a computer program for analyzing complex slope geometry and slope profile conditions. Two examples are shown in the paper to illustrate the analysis results of the developed probability approach for determining the reliability of a drilled shaft stabilized slope system.

By Emad Farouz, Ehab S. Shatnawi, Charles Winter

The increasing demand for small deformations and high-capacity drilled shafts without enlarging drilled-shaft diameters has motivated the development and increased use of a base grouting (BG) technique. This technique has been demonstrated to improve drilled-shaft axial capacity, especially for shafts tipped into loose cohesionless soils. To date, there are a couple of documented design methods for estimating the axial geotechnical resistance of base-grouted shafts. However, there is no or lack of research that addresses the lateral response of such shafts. A base-grouted drilled shaft test program was carried out during the design phase of the Wisconsin I-94 Zoo Interchange reconstruction project. The test program included installing and testing one base-grouted shaft and one ungrouted shaft under both lateral and axial loading. Based on test results, it was concluded that the lateral behavior of the BG drilled shaft is significantly stiffer than conventional drilled shaft . Hypothetical method was developed to account for potential increased, however, the method should be verified with more lateral load test.