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By F. G. Miller

[Petroleum tscknologists nnd progressive operatorr. constantly are striving to increase the percentage of oil thnt may be recorered from reservoir rocks through wells. The exhaustive studies that hve boen made of the function of natural gas in the production of oil, for example, havo aided operators greatly in increasing tho quantity of oil recovered from reservoirs. Natural gas dissolv.3d in and otheraiso asnociatod under pressuro with oil in rsservoir rocks, howovor, is not tho only source of energy available for rnovi~~ oil through sands to wells. In becomine Veservoi~enorgy conscious^^ encineera havo lonrned that in nnny petroleum resorroirs the edgewater flanking the oil accurrulation constitutos a potantinl source of enorgy cnpnblo, through pro1,sr control, of increasing oil-recovory officioncies materially. ?To longer is tho oncronchmont of mter into the oil- and gas-fillod uart of tho reservoir conridsred as evil to be combatted by dovious mothods but rnthar a nrtturrtl consequence, incident to the withdraval of oil nna gas from tho rolls, thnt mP.y be used nd~~mtngeoualy in lengthening the flowing life of wells ,md incre~sing the oconornic recovery nf oil and gns. Little is knom a3out tho nac'n-~nisrn by mhich wnter qor-rtos in driving nil through reservoir rocks, nnd thjro is n scnrcity of published informa- tion on rates of rnovzrnant of ~ntcr +,hat will result in naxilnm oil recoveries. Bureau of Xine s er.gir.ess nr r'reciate the ~aucity of scientific knowledge on the best methods of lying the natural rater drive to in- crease oil-recovery efficiencies arid ar9 initiating stildies that rill, they hope, contributo to tho procont small fund of information now available on the subject. This rh~.ort is s syr,o_nsis or brief c03pilation of published dAta and thought nccumulntod 30 far, groliminary to la-uorgtory ox~eriment+ tion NI& further resaarch on the principlgs und~rlying the nnturnl wnter drive RS it nffocts oil rocovory. The vrritors hopo th2t the omosition of available information prosentod in tho rey~ort rill stindate constructive thought and efforts loading torard moro comrlote extraction of oil and gas from resorvoirs.]

Jan 1, 1938

By R. Barany

Thermodynamic calculations pertaining to the minerals gibbsite, kaolinite, halloysite, and dickite have been hampered by the lack of adequate heat and free energy of formation data. Previous data for gibbsite were highly uncertain, and there were no data for the other three substances. By use of hydrofluoric acid solution calorimetry, the Bureau of Mines derived heat of formation values from the elements and from the oxides for the four substances, and the data were combined with known entropy values to obtain the corresponding free energies of formation. The results show that gibbsite and halloysite are thermodynamically unstable with respect to the oxides (a- alumina, a- quartz, and liquid water) at 298.15° K,, while kaolinite and dickite are only moderately stable (to about the same degree), The instability of halloysite, in comparison with kaolinite and dickite, results in a 60°-lower equilibrium decomposition temperature.

Jan 1, 1961

By J. L. Shultz

Mass spectrometric analyses were obtained for naphthalene and anthracene oils, heavy creosote, and three fractions of a pitch. The average molecular weight, aromaticity, and mean structural unit were determined for each fraction. The investigation of these fractions of coal tar has resulted in semiquantitative data for 38 structural types and carbon number distribution data for their alkyl derivatives. The molecular weights of 10 of these structural types indicate ring systems not previously reported in products from high-temperature carbonization of coal. Two of these structures are poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, two are oxygen-containing compounds, one contains sulfur, and five are nitrogen-containing compounds.

Jan 1, 1967

By John Ward Smith

Variations in specific gravity of oil retorted from oil shales of the Eocene Green River Formation in northwestern Colorado were evaluated statistically, demonstrating that these variations are very strongly associated with stratigraphic position and less strongly but still significantly associated with geographic location. Specific gravity of oil retorted from these oil shales apparently varies with the carboxyl group content of the oil shale's organic matter. Higher temperatures accompanying increasing depth of burial probably progressively decarboxylated oil shale's organic matter producing the decrease of oil specific gravity associated with deeper stratigraphic position. The geographically associated oil-gravity variations were probably produced by regional variation in the original thickness of late Cenozoic extrusive rocks once overlying the Green River Formation.

Jan 1, 1966

By W. H. Emens

[This circular is one of a series dealing with tie development and equip¬ment of small and medium size mines, and with the costs of such work prior to productive operation. The preparation and publication of these papers by the Bureau off Mines has been made possible through the cooperation of various min¬ing and development companies. The bureau of Mines has published a series of circulars dealing with min¬ing methods and costs at a large number of producing nines in the United States, Canada, Mexico, an, other countries. Unit costs of development work, shaft sinking, (rifting, crosscutting, tunneling, and raising are usually much higher in the preliminary development of a property than during its productive life.]

Jan 1, 1933

By T. E. Gray

This report describes the preparation characteristics of the significant coalbeds in Harrison County, W. Va. It is one in a series of Federal Bureau of Mines reports planned to determine coals suitable for the production of metallurgical coke, either as mined or after beneficiation. Over 6.5 million tons of coal was produced in Harrison County, W. Va., in 1958, of which over 3.7 million tons was cleaned mechanically in seven preparation plants. All of the coal cleaned was from the Pittsburgh bed. It has been estimated that more than 1,816 million tons of coal remains in the county in beds 12 inches or more thick. The Pittsburgh and Redstone beds were selected by the Bureau for a study based on current production rates and estimated minable reserves. Sample locations were selected following a study of the literature, conferences with mining engineers and mining company officials in the field, and examination of the available sites. Six samples were collected from the Pittsburgh bed, and three samples came from the Redstone bed, Float-and-sink tests of the samples collected from the Pittsburgh and Redstone beds showed that neither coal could be upgraded to a metallurgical fuel under the standards set up for this study, even after intensive preparation. Finer crushing of the samples moderately increased the yields and slightly reduced both the ash and the sulfur contents in the 1.30-specific-gravity float fractions. Finer crushing slightly decreased the yields in the 1.58-specific-gravity float fractions, whereas it reduced the sulfur content 0.11 percent for the Redstone sample and 0.46 for the Pittsburgh sample.

Jan 1, 1961

By R. V. Ramani, W. Miola, R. Srikanth, S. C. Soboleski

"Dust control in high-production longwalls requires attention to operating practices and ventilation schemes. Several studies have shown that the shearer is the major source of dust on a longwall face. Support movement has not been regarded as a major source of dust in US longwalls. Yet, under certain conditions, 31% of the shearer operator's dust exposure can be due to support movement.Several methods have been developed for the control of shield-generated dust. But the need for better methods is apparent. In this paper, the amount of airborne, respirable dust generated per shield move is estimated from specially designed experiments on longwall faces. Ten experiments were conducted on five longwall faces in four mines. Each experiment involved one face visit and lasted three to six hours. The contribution of shield movement to the airborne, respirable dust concentration immediately downwind of the shield move varied between 0.12 and 1.75 mg/m3 in the five longwall faces. The mass of airborne, respirable dust gener-ated by shield movement was found to vary between 39 and 386 mg per shield move. The results from this study reveal that control of dust from longwall shields requires a combi-nation of approaches involving alternative operating prac-tices, reducing shield dust generation rate, increasing face air flow and decreasing personnel exposure.IntroductionIn 1992, longwall mining accounted for about 36% of US underground coal production, a 240% increase from a decade ago. The absolute longwall tonnages were 46 and 133 Mt (51 and 146 million st), respectively. Compared with room-and¬pillar mining systems, the longwall mining system is charac¬terized by higher recovery, enhanced safety and higher pro¬ductivity.However, personnel dust exposure on a longwall face is higher than in other types of mining. According to Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) data, fewer longwalls were in continuous compliance with the applicable dust standard in 1992 than in 1989.Controlling shearer-generated dust and reduction of per-sonnel exposure to airborne dust have commanded attention in the design of longwall faces, operational practices and ventilation schemes. Studies in the United States and abroad have revealed that support-generated dust can be a major obstacle to compliance under certain conditions (Becker et al., 1989; Bradley et al., 1983; Jankowski and Organiscak, 1983; Jankowski et al., 1990; Organiscak et al., 1985)."

Dec 1, 1996

Quickly and cheaply consolidate underground slimes to facilitate their use as backfill and permit their easy handling for other reasons. Approach: The slurry containing slimes is pumped into active stopes and electrokinetically dewatered to provide consolidated back fill. How It Works: To densify slimes electro-kinetically two electrodes are placed in the material to be dewatered and densified. Typically, the electrodes are pieces of wire mesh fencing. One is placed on the bottom, and the other is suspended in the slurry near the surface. Figure 1 is a simplified section of a test. A d-c voltage of 100 to 400 volts is applied across the slurry. This causes the solid particles which are in suspension in the water (usually these are negatively charged) to migrate toward the anode; simultaneously, the water moves toward the cathode. Water immediately adjacent to the negatively charged solid particle surfaces contains an excess of dissolved positive ions. When these ions are attracted to the electrode and move towards it, they also exert

Jan 1, 1976

By Lucia Kuizon

The Miranda Pine Roadless Area Review and Evaluation (RARE II) study area (No. 5114) comprises 12,600 acres (5,100 ha) in Los Padres National Forest in Santa Barbara County, California, about 15 mi (24 km) east of Santa Maria (fig. 1). Mineral investigations are made by personnel from the U.S. Bureau of Mines on National Forest lands identified as Further Planning Areas in the RARE II program. The Bureau of Mines reviewed literature, mining claim records, and production files; examined the study area; and sampled mineral properties where appropriate.

Jan 1, 1983

By A. A. Cochran

Methods of preparing small heats of steel containing radioisotopes were developed, and the techniques of stripping film autoradiography were used to detect and study the carbide and sulfide phases in titanium-bearing steels. Metallography had revealed areas of titanium sulfide and ferrite or pearlite adjacent to areas of titanium carbide and ferrite, and unidentified, irregular phases at the boundaries between these two areas. Sulfur 35 was used to deter-mine the extent of the titanium sulfide inclusions, and carbon 14 was used to delineate the titanium carbide phase. Individual radioactive areas were located with a resolution of approximately 10 microns. A general background exposure that was not correlated with microscopically visible phases was observed in the carbon 14 autoradiographs. The evidence from both sulfur 35 autoradiographs and carbon 14 autoradiographs indicated that the unidentified inclusions were sulfides rather than carbides. INTRODUCTION The use of radioisotopes to facilitate the work at the Rolla Metallurgy Research Center was expanded in fiscal year 1959 when the Bureau of Mines authorized the installation of an intermediate-level radioactivity laboratory. Before this time, sealed cobalt 60 sources had been employed for radiography, but no tracer work was done. The primary objective of the first experiments conducted in the new laboratory was to supplement physical metallurgy investigations of selected problems in steel research.

Jan 1, 1962

By P. B. Ritter

The feasibility of redesigning and adapting the all- secondary-explosive, low-voltage, electric safe detonator for use as a delay detonator has been demonstrated. Experimental results have shown that operational characteristics can be adjusted to allow direct competition of safe delay detonators with commercial delay blasting caps. Five different experimental delay period models have been developed and tested. Test results are given and results are evaluated. Subsequent simplified and improved designs for practical and economical mass production are described. Design concepts to meet Bureau of Mines voltage withstand, incendivity, and spark sensitivity requirements are included. Recommendations are made for experimental procedures to ready the safe delay detonator for mass production and extensive use in mining and other industries.

Jan 1, 1977

By M. F. Dunn

During a mine fire or other emergency, it may be desirable to reverse the airflow in order to provide an escapeway or to isolate a fire. Also, in colder areas, the airflow may be reversed to prevent ice buildup. When reversing main mine fans, the mine operator usually does not know what operating characteristics of flow and pressure to expect. Laboratory and field tests of vane axial main mine fans in the 7- to 9-ft diameter size range were conducted to establish forward and reverse performance characteristics under controlled conditions and at typical mine installations. The data obtained suggest that reverse performance characteristics are dependent upon the blade angle and the hub to tip ratio. There is also evidence that reverse performance can be predicted for a family of blade angles and a given hub to tip ratio. Generally, quantity of air is 30 to 65% less in reverse than when operating in the normal forward mode.

Jan 1, 1983

By W. M. Dressel

The Federal Bureau of Mines has obtained data by differential thermal analysis of the various minerals that represent the nation's resources in manganese. These data are supported by X-ray diffraction analysis, chemical analysis, mineralography, and optical mineralogy, and provide fundamental information on the response of each mineral to thermal treatment in oxidizing, reducing, and neutral atmospheres. The information can be applied advantage¬ously in the identification of manganese minerals. Its greatest potential value, however, lies in the application of the quantitative data on the reaction temperatures, rates, and products to the more efficient extraction of manganese from U.S. ores. Thermal analysis curves are presented for certain manganese minerals, namely hausmannite, bixbyite, braunite, pyrolusite, lithiophorite, cryptomelane, hollandite, manganite, rhodochrosite, and rhodonite. The original minerals and the products of their thermal decomposition were identified by X-ray diffraction analysis, supplemented by chemical analysis and mineralogical identification.

Jan 1, 1961

By F. E. Cash

Much has been written concerning accidents in coal mines; the fact that accidents cost the employer and employee money is generally well known, but how much accidents actually cost is vague, even in the minds of many operators. Unquestionably there are hazards in coal mining, but many of them can be eliminated; and from the prevention of accidents there can be realized a material saving in dollars and cents as well as in human suffering. In presenting the frequency, severity, and cost of accidents in some Tennessee coal mines, it is hoped that other mines in Tennessee, as well as mines in other States, will by a comparison of the data with their own ex¬ perience be enabled eventually to reduce the number of' their accidents.

Dec 1, 1932

By R. C. Hickman

"INTRODUCTION Marl, consisting of a bed of coarse shell conglomerate from 1 to 5 feet thick, occurs on the Chesapeake Corporation tract and Philbates properties in New Kent County, Va.Nine holes were drilled on these properties in February 1946. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn its program of exploration of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Mines has as its primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy. It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts developed by each exploratory project as soon as practicable after its conclusion. The Mining Branch, Lowell B. Moon, chief, conducts prelimi¬nary examinations, performs the actual exploratory work, and prepares the final report. The Metallurgical Branch, Oliver C. Ralston, chief, analyzes samples and performs beneficiation tests.The project was under the immediate supervision of Mitchell H. Kline, chief, Raleigh Division, Mining Branch.LOCATIONThe Chesapeake Corp. deposit is reached from West Point, Va., by driving west on State Route 33 to the junction of State Route 634, approximately 5 miles. Proceed southeast along State Route 634 about three-quarters of a mile, at which point an old longing road turns north along a ridge and leads to the marl outcrops about one-half mile distant. The Philbates property lies three-quarters of a mile farther west along State Route 33 from the junction with State Route 634. The property lies north of State Route 33 and east of State Route 623 (fig. 1). The marl deposits are on the north end of the farm. The Chesapeake Corp. tract comprises 174 acres and the Philbato property 58 acres."

Aug 1, 1947

By J. M. Riley

This report summarizes Bureau of Mines experiments in purifying sulfate leach liquors, which were prepared from low-tenor beryl concentrates by modifying the Degussa process. The leach liquor was prepared from a beryl concentrate containing 2.7 percent BeO by (1) sintering the beryl concentrate with limestone in a rotary kiln at about 1,150° C. and by (2) treating the sinter first with sulfuric acid and then with water to form and extract beryllium sulfate. About 80 percent of the beryllium was dissolved. The resulting leach liquor contained 2.4 grams of BeO, 20 grams of Al203, and 6 grams of Fe203 per liter. The laboratory solution contained much more aluminum and iron than a solution derived from treating 10 percent BeO concentrate, which is the standard raw material used by industry. Tests were made to determine the behavior of the solution toward alum purification and limestone neutralization both of which were employed industrially in conventional Degussa procedure.

Jan 1, 1962

By Andrew Cecala

The Bureau of Mines performed tests to compare the effectiveness of steam and of water sprays to reduce respirable dust levels at mineral processing plants. By applying 0.22 wt pct water vapor as steam to product material, a 64-pct respirable dust reduction was recorded. By applying the same amount of moisture with water sprays, only a 25-pct dust reduction was recorded. By increasing the moisture content up to0.5 pct using water sprays, the dust reduction was increased to 55 pet, which was still less than the dust reduction achieved by adding less than half that amount of water in the form of steam.

Jan 1, 1985

A computer program for the static load analysis of linear elastic structures is presented. It is the product of a two-year project for the development of a efficient program for the analysis of mine-type structures. The report is divided into two parts. The first part explains the general method of analysis, the computer program organization and the most significant numerical techniques used. The second part is a user manual for the computer program. The FORTRAN IV computer program deck and example problems were transmitted separately to the sponsor. Request for a copy of the program should be directed to the Bureau of Mines, Denver Mining Research Center.

Jan 1, 1972

By G. R. Hopkins, E. M. SEELEY

According to reports received by the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, as of Jamary 1, 1930, there were 1,035 natural-gasoline plants in the United States, with a total daily capacity of 10,516,000 gallons. (These data do not include one small plant in Alaska.) The last similar survey, that of Jamary 1, 1928, showed a total of 1,155 plants of 8,048,000 gallons daily capa- city. This in two years time the number of plants has decreased by 120, but the total capacity has increased 2,468,000 gallons or 31 per cent. This is roughly equivalent to the gain in production over the same periodi Over half of the increase in total capacity was registered in California, where the development of flush oil production having a comparatively high gas-oil ratio in such fields as Santa Fe Springs led to construction of some new plants and material enlargement of others. Of the total plants, 999 were operating on Jamary 1, 1930, and 36 were shut down. This compares with 1,060 operating and 95 shut down two years ago, which indicates a tendency to dismantle plants as soon as they become obsolete or umrofitable. The total daily capacity of the plants operating on Jamiary 1, 1930, amounted to 10,278,000 gallons, or 98 per cent of the total, leaving only 238,000 gallons, or 2 per cent, for the shut-down plants. This contrasts with the refining industry, which usually has 5 per cent of its total capacity idle; the difference is due to the relative ease with which a refiner can secure a crude supply as against the difficulty the natural gasoline manufacturer has in reestablishing his gas connections. During 1929 the average total daily capacity of the operating plants was 9,899,000 gallons, while the average daily production amounted to 6,015,000 gallons. This indicates that the plants operated during 1929 at 61 per cent of their capacity. Although over 60 plants were dismantled in Oklahoma during 1929 the State continued to rank first in total mumber. California was second in mumber of plants with 165, and was one of the few States that showed a gain since the

Jul 1, 1930

By Louis C. Brichta

The Rush Creek district of Marion County, Ark., has had a more or less continuous record of zinc production over the past 40 years. The ore has come from many small mines working on oxidized and semi-oxidized deposits found in the Everton formation where that formation forms the present surface rock. Prospecting has been restricted to the hillsides above the creek levels, the actual ore outcrops being the guides. Little attention has been paid the possible sulfide zones. In August 1942, the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines recommended exploration of the Powell and Cotter formations, which underlie the Everton, for which purpose the Survey had previously located 18 proposed drill-hole sites in geological structures that seemed favorable to are deposition.

Jan 1, 1949