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By E. S. Moore

Although nickel was in use in alloys long before the Christian era, the metal was not discovered until 1751, when Cronstedt recognized it in niccolite from Sweden. The Chinese apparently used a nickel alloy, known as "pahfong" thousands of years ago and Persian coins dating farther back than 200 B.C. consist of a copper-nickel alloy similar to some of those now in use in coins. The pure metal was first prepared about 1775 and the metal was refined for commercial purposes some years later. The nickel industry did not attain much prominence until the ores in New Caledonia were discovered. Exports of ore from that country began in 1875 and since that date there has been an ever-increasing world output of nickel and a great expansion in the uses of the metal except during short periods of commercial and industrial depression. Previous to 1875, for a number of years, Norway was the chief producer, although the metal was mined also in Sweden, Finland, Italy, Germany, Austria, France, China, the United States and other countries. With the discovery of nickel deposits in the Sudbury district, Ontario, a new factor was introduced into the nickel industry and Sudbury has since become the overwhelmingly dominant feature in the world's nickel markets. Although nickel was first discovered in Canada as early as 1848 near the north shore of Lake Huron and nickel-copper sulfides were found in 1856 by surveyors working close to the present location of the important rnine at Creighton, in the Sudbury field, it was not until 1883 that any importance was attached to this field. In that year copper sulfide attracted attention where the main line of the Canadian Pacific railroad was being projected across Canada to the Pacific coast. Mining began near this discovery in 1889 but in the meantime operations had begun in 1886 in other parts of the field and by 1890 about 100,000 tons of ore had been raised. In the Sudbury field, as in Norway and at the old Lancaster Gap mine in Pennsylvania, the ore was first mined for its copper content and difficully in the refining of the copper led to the discovery of the important proportions of nickel in the ore. No. 3 property of the International Nickel Co., now known as the Frood, the greatest deposit in the

Jan 1, 1932

By William B. Hughes

The rubber-sleeve core barrel was developed to improve core recovery from unconsolidated sands, where it is most difficult to obtain cores with conventional barrels. The use of a rubber-sleeve core retainer, together with other departures from clsual design, has required a considerable amount of testing to prove its op-erability. Tests run in shallow experimental holes and in drilling wells in the U. S. and Vemzuela have, to a large extent, proved the operation of the barrel. Internal mechanism troubles, such as sandbinding of the sleeve, have been largely overcome. Cores have been recovered from completely unconsolidated sands where conventional coring has almost been abandoned because of poor recovery. In addition to retaining the core until brought to the surface, the barrel gives a "packaged-ar-cut" core, which is coilverzient for handling and transportatiorz. In the initial work, drag blade cutters, roller cutters, and tungsten carbide insert cutters were usrd for cutting unconsolidated sands. Further bit head development is presently being conducted using diamond heads in unconsolidated sands where shaler, hard sands, and limestones are encountered in adjacent formations. Thir work should render the barrel capable of cratting and recovering most types of formations, possibly including broken and frac- tured fornlations. This development is being carried on in cooperation with a diamond bit manufacturer. INTRODUCTIO N For many years the oil industry has needed greater recovery of cores from unconsolidated formations. Conventional equipment has been used to core unconsolidated sands with little success. Specifically, a core barrel was needed which would recover unconsolidated sands in a condition that would give useful reservoir information. DEVELOPMENT OF 'THE RUBBER-SLEEVE CORE BARREL Basic Requirements of Unconsolidated Sand Corino The basic need was defined as a core barrel that would obtain a continuous unconsolidated core with sand grains in place as deposited in the formation. A preliminary survey of coring equipment and search of the literature pointed out the weaknesses of conventional core barrels. Laboratory tests using unconsolidated sand in a metal tube simulated actual sand movement into the core barrel during conventional coring. In conventional barrels the core sometimes crumbles and bridges, or fails under compressive column action, becomes oversize, and wedges against the walls of the inner barrel. The core barrel requirements established by the surveys and preliminary tests are as follows. 1. The core should be held to- gether as it is cut so it cannot crumble and bridge against the walls of the coring tool, care being taken not to permit damage from fluid circulation. 2. The core should be continuously supported as it is cut so it will not have to support itself in compression. 3. The core should be packaged in the barrel to retain an undisturbed condition during the trip out of the well. The packaging should be such that the core can be removed from the barrel and shipped to the core analysis laboratory without physical disturbance or alteration of fluid content by exposure to the atmosphere. Operation of the Rubber-Sleeve Core Barrel The rubber-sleeve core barrel (Fig. 1) meets the basic requirements for the recovery of unconsolidated sands.

COUNCIL OF EDUCATION OF AIME (Formerly Mineral Industry Education Division) Established as a Division January 15, 1932 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 John C Calhoun, Jr, Chairman 0 Cutler Shepard, Vice-Chairman Thomas A Read, Secretary-Treasurer Dept of Mining & Metallurgical Engrg University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois COUNCIL OF ECONOMICS OF AIME (Formerly Mineral Economics Division) Established as a Division December 15, 1948 Established as a Council February 26, 1957 Louis C Raymond, Chairman Lorin A Cranson, Vice-Chairman Henry T Mudd, Vice-Chairman Adam K Stricker, Jr, Vice-Chairman Paul F Yopes, Secretary-Treasurer U S Bureau of Mines Albany, Oregon

Jan 1, 1957

By O. G. Lellep

Modern shaft kilns in Europe are fully mechanized and burn cement of acceptable quality at 700,000 Btu per bbl and lime at 3.2 million Btu per net ton. Rotary kilns for cement have increased in thermal efficiency by using exit gas heat for preheating incoming raw material and by recovering heat from outgoing clinker in air-quench coolers. The dry process Lepol or ACL kiln has the lowest fuel consumption, 580,000 to 630,000 Btu per bbl, and very low dust loss, about 1 pct weight of clinker. The Holdebank-Gygi system reaches 720,000 Btu per bbl. The calcinator kiln for the wet process consumes 1.1 million Btu per bbl. IN every country economic circumstances prescribe the method used to produce a commodity at lowest cost. In Pennsvlvania a man's wages for working 4 hr buys a ton of coal wholesale; in Germany a laborer must work 40 hr, or ten times as long. In western Europe, therefore, conservation of fuel is of primary importance, and recent practices of burning lime and cement differ from those employed in the United States. 'This Paper presents data collected during a trip through western Europe in 1953. Considered uneconomical, shaft kilns for burning

Jan 1, 1955

By K. H. Coats, M. H. Terhune

Analysis and example applications have been performed to compare the accuracy and computing speed of alternating-direction explicit and implicit procedures (ADEP and ADIP) in numerical solution of reservoir fluid flow problems. ADIP yields significantly greater accuracy and requires about 60 per cent more computing time than ADEP, not 300 or 500 per cent more as reported elsewhere. l,2 INTRODUCTION Several recent papers 1-3 discuss an alternating-direction explicit difference approximation (ADEP) to the diffusion equation. Example applications of ADEP and ADIP4 were reported to support conclusions that ADEP is comparable in accuracy to ADIP and requires one-fifth to one-third the computing time of ADIP. Applications of ADEP in calculation of two-phase flow in reservoirs was also proposed. 3 This study was performed to compare further the relative merits of ADEP and ADIP in simulation of two-dimensional flow of one and two fluid phases in reservoirs. Since two-phase flow equations are often essentially elliptic rather than parabolic, the efficiency of ADEP in solving the elliptic equation was also examined.

Jan 1, 1967

By J. E. Lawver, B. J. Clingan, R. E. Snow

Response surface methodology is a well-known and powerful technique for determining optimum conditions in flotation systems. One disadvantage is the onerous task of the numerical calculations and curve plotting. This paper describes a system in which the investigator simply selects the range of several flotation variables after which the design of the experiment, data analysis, generation of response surface equations, and response surface plots are automatically carried out using a digital computer and a computer-driven curve plotter. Several typical response surfaces of important variables in phosphate flotation are presented as examples.

Jan 1, 1980

By Edward H. Williams

IN the middle of the eighteenth century John Frazier and wife, Sarah Ingraham, removed from Boston, Mass., to Philadelphia, Pa., where he was held in such esteem that we find him one of the Committee which arranged the ball at Washington's inauguration. Their son John. Nalbro Frazier, was prosperous in his mercantile career and fortunate in his wife, .Anne West; who was an important personage in the early life of Professor Frazier. This cultured lady brought into the family an atmosphere of religious enthusiasm, of thoroughness and: of unity of purpose. Her son, Benjamin West Frazier, inherited her traits and displayed them during a. short and active life. Like his father, he engaged in mercantile pursuits, and was a member of the firm of Zimmerman, Frazier & Co. In their interests he lived for a short- time in Montevideo, and on his return married Isabella Zimmerman, a daughter of the head of the firm. Their happy married life was cut short by the death of Mrs. Frazier shortly after the birth of the subject of this sketch which, occurred October 3, 1841. Mr. Frazier did not long survive her, and left his orphaned sons to, the care of his mother, from whom he had inherited a lovable and deeply religious nature, an : artistic temperament and a capacity for thorough work. Whatever of these traits fell by inheritance to these children were strengthened by the influence of their grandmother, and. the purity of mind, the delicacy of sentiment, the refinement of honor, which characterized. Professor Frazier, are due to Anne West Frazier, and are generally present in the characters of all of gentle blood who have been under the sole and immediate influence of a mature and refined woman. Professor Frazier was educated at the Episcopal Academy in Philadelphia, and passed thence through the University of

Sep 1, 1905

By Arnulf Muan, Egil Aukrust

Activities of COO in the three solid solution series COO-MgO, COO-MnO, and COO-"FeO" have been determined at 1200°C by equilibrating oxide samples with a metal phase (cobalt or a Co-Fe alloy) in atmospheres of known oxygen activities. The systems COO-MgO and COO-MnO are ideal, within limits of experimental error, whereas the system COO-"FeO" shows a slight positive deviation from ideality at the temperature of this investigation. KNOWLEDGE of activities of oxide components in solid solutions is necessary for the calculation of the cation distribution among coexisting oxide phases in many important metallurgical, ceramic, and geochemical systems. Very few activity-composition curves are available for such systems at the present time. A start on the prodigious job of obtaining such data has been made by studies of solid solutions with simple sodium chloride type structure containing NiO or "FeO" as a component.1-3 The present paper describes similar studies for solid solutions with sodium chloride type structure containing COO as a component. For the systems COO-MgO and COO-MnO, the activity solid solution is determined by the equation Here po and are the oxygen activities of the gas phase in equilibrium with the phase assemblages metallic cobalt plus oxide solid solution, and metallic cobalt plus pure COO, respectively. In the system CoO-"Fe07', the metal phase is a Co-Fe alloy rather than pure cobalt. In this case the activity of COO in the oxide solid solution is calculated from the equation where a& is the activity of cobalt in the metal phase. Because the system Co-Fe is close to ideal4 and the metal phase appearing in the present work contains less iron than cobalt even at the lowest COO concentrations of the oxide phases used may be set equal to N . Hence, Eq. [2] becomes The value of Nc, can be estimated from the relative stabilities of the oxides COO (see below) and I) EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Two different but closely related procedures were used in the present investigation to determine the activity-composition curves. In one method, the oxide solid solutions were equilibrated against

Jan 1, 1963

By J. C. Martin

Stmplified equations are developed for the flow of fluids in gas drive reservoirs in which the effects of gravity can be neglected. The results show that the pressure distribution is governed by a nonlinear heat flow type of equation, and the saturation distributions are related to the pressure by the same equations QS those developed by Muskat for the average pressure and saturations in gas drive reservoirs. Unrler certain conditions the equation for the pressure can be approximated by the linear form of the heat flow equatlon. This equation tk analogous to the equation for the pressure in single-phase compressible flow The analysis reveals that the equation for the pressure in n~ultiphase flows can be obtained directly from the equation for the pressure in slngle-phase flows by simply replacing the single-phase compressibility by the total compressibility and the single-phase mobility by the sum of the mobilities of all the fluids present. Perrine's method of pressure buildup analysis for multiphme flows is based on these same substitutions. Thus, the development presented in this paper constitutes a theoretical justification for Perrine's method of pressure buildup analysis. One of the most difficult problems associated with the production of oil is the determination of the flow of the fluids within the reservoirs. One purpose of this paper is to present the development of simplified equations for the flow in gas drive reservoirs. The other purpose is to present some of the needed theoretical foundation for the methods currently being used in the analysis of multiphase pressure buildup data. The analysis presented in this paper makes use of a partial linearization of the equations governing multiphase flows. It is felt that the process of linearizing or partially linearizing the nonlinear equations of multiphase flows can lead to useful results since this process has proved extremely valuable in the study of other fields of science and engineering where nonlinear equations are encountered. Pressure buildup data of shut-in wells have been used for many years to estimate the static reservoir pressure. These data have also been used in studying the aver- age permeability both away from and close to the well-bores. The majority of the buildup data are obtained from wells producing two or three fluids. As yet the theoretical foundations for the methods of buildup analysis used in connection with rnultiphase buildup data have not been established. A number of methods of analysis of pressure buildup data have been developed." Most of these methods apply only to single-phase flows, and almost all of the theoretical analysis is confined to single-phase flows. Perrine' developed a method of analysis for rnultiphase flows from the method for single-phase flows of Miller, Dyes, and Hutchinson.' He did this by simply replacing the single-phase compressibility by the multiphase compressibility and replacing the single-phase mobility by the sum of the mobilities of the fluids in the rnultiphase flows. Obviously, such a procedure lacks a certain amount of theoretical justification, and such practices can lead to erroneous results. Fortunately, Perrine's results have a theoretical justification, and this justification is presented in the following discussion. It is assumed that gravitational effects and the cornpressibility of the rock can be neglected. Under these assumptions the equations governing the simultaneous flow of gas, oil and water in porous media areo* The preceding equations can be expanded into the following expressions.

By Jasper L. Stuckey

PYROPHYLLITE, first identified as soapstone,1 later as agalmatolite,2 and finally as pyrophyllite,3 has been known to occur in North Carolina for more than 130 years and has been produced intermittently in commercial amounts for the past 100 years. Pyrophyllite mining, however, has become a major industry in North Carolina only during the past 25 years. North Carolina and California are the chief producing states. Current annual production averages 125,000 tons, of which slightly more than 90 pct comes from North Carolina. Distribution and Geologic Setting: All known pyrophyllite deposits in North Carolina are associated with rocks of the Carolina Slate Belt,4 which is composed of a vast series of metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary materials, occurring as two zones extending in a northeast-southwest direction across the state. The larger of these zones, lying in the central Piedmont region, varies from 8 to 50 miles wide. The smaller zone lies along the eastern edge of the Piedmont region and is partly covered by coastal plain sediments.

Jan 1, 1958

By P. D. White, J. T. Moss, J. S. McNiel

Results of experimental work on the in situ combustion process were first published in this country in 1953' when Kuhn and Koch described results of a three-well test in Jefferson County, Okla. Shortly there-after Grant and Szasz2 described field studies in Nowata County, Okla., in which several modifications of the basic combustion process were investigated by injection of various oxidizing gas mixtures other than air. In the past five years speculation concerning this method of oil recovery has continued, with a number of interesting papers on various aspects of in situ combustion appearing in the literature3,4,5,6,7. However, only one of these' provided actual engineering information on pattern-type field experiments. The primary objectives of the Oklahoma three-well test were to check operation of specially designed electrical ignition equipment and evaluate problems associated with initiation of combustion in a natural oil sand reservoir. Immediately following successful completion of this test in the Pontotoc sand, plans were activated for a second field experiment to be conducted in the same sand a short distance away. The objective of this second field test1 as to establish a relationship between field observations and information derived from laboratory experimentation and computations. Secondary objectives of the test were to develop operating tech- niques and define operating problems, and to obtain information that would assist in the economic and engineering appraisals of the process. Careful planning was required since this test was designed with the hope of providing basic information on the characteristics and operation of a combustion drive. It was necessary to include test facilities which would not only permit precise control and measurement of the process variables but would also provide sufficient flexibility of control to insure that variables in the combustion process could be studied during the course of the test under a wide range of conditions. In order to accomplish these objectives elaborate instrumentation and several control wells were included in the design of the test installation. This type installation was felt to be well suited for an experimental study, but was in no respect intended as a counterpart of a commercial-scale operation. PRELIMINARY LABORATORY WORK An important objective of the field experiment, as stated previously, has been to obtain reliable data on operating variables which might be compared with similar data obtained in laboratory combustion tests. The value of successful correlations between quantities that can be measured in the laboratory and those obtained in a full-scale commercial venture has been well established for other industrial processes. The difficulty of following a process underground should make such correlations even more essential here. Also. approaching the field test phase of development of in situ combustion, it was considered desirable to precede design of test equipment with laboratory combustion studies under a variety of conditions to establish likely ranges of variables. These included temperature, air injection rate, frontal advance rate and produced gas composition.

By FREDERICK MCAKCCOY

THE production of tin from Mexico has never reached the point of being considered a national industry, but the distribution of tin ores is so widespread that there are possibilities that one day it may become of importance. Of the twenty-seven states of the Republic, tin claims have been taken up in sixteen. In all there had been taken up to the end of 1926, two hundred and twenty-five claims, of a total area of about 7400 acres. The first historical mention of tin in the Americas is found in a letter of Cortez to the Emperor, Charles the Fifth, of Spain, which is as follows: Speaking of his manufacture of some small cannon, he says: "For these reasons I took considerable pains to get copper from some provinces of this country, and bought it at a high price in order to get it quicker.

Jan 1, 1929

By G. T. Engel, W. G. Gruzensky

Jan 1, 1960

By F. W. Maclennan

The following is a list of members who died in 1929. It is compiled from reports to the Secretary's office. Biographical sketches published in Mining and Metallurgy are indicated in the last two columns. Issue Containing Year of Date of Biography Election Name Death 1929 Page 1922 Adams, Waldo Peck................................ June 2 September 435 1903 Argall, Joseph.................................... Nov. 1 1894 Austin, Leonard S................................. Oct. 30 December 580 1905 Bailed, Melbourne.........................Dec. 12 May* 280 1890 Barringer, Daniel M.............................. Nov. 30 February* 119 1895 Batchelleb, HENRr R.............................. Jan. 15 March 167 BINGHAM Charles E............................. 1923 Bibkett, E. H..................................... Apr. 23 August 394 1913 Bibbell, Robert W................................. Jan. 18 April 214 1926 Blackmar, Don C.................................. June 4 March* 189 1920 Bosworth, T. O.................................... Jan. 18 April 214 1894 Boucher, Arthur S..........................Jan. 6 May 257 1927 Brandenthaler, R. R.............................. Dec. 14 January* 64 1889 Bretherton, S. E............................... Oct. 4 December 581 1911 Brunton, F. K................ .. Aug. 17 1924 Brush, Charles F................................. June 15 September 436 1925 Cameron, Frank N........................May 16 July 349 1891 Chambers, Robert E.............................. May July 348 1908 Clark, J. Murray................................. Dec. 3 August* 407 1883 Clymer, edward T............................. Oct. 13 December 579 1914 Cofpey, George T................................. May 8 July 349 1901 Cooke, L. H....................................... Aug. 23 November 537 1915 Cousins, George W........................ June 30 February* 118 1886 Cowles, A. H...................................... Aug. 13 September 436 1892 Crane, Theron I............................. Nov. 2 December 579 1921 Crowell, Samuel B................................ Dec. 9 January* 64 1907 Curtis, Bracey.................................... Jan. 31 April 215 1895 de Batz, Rene........ ............... January March* 189 1928 Dines, Tyson S.................................... March May 257 1909 Dufourco, R. G............................. January November 537 1920 Ericsson, Eric A.................................. Apr. 4 April* 231 1920 Erlenborn, Willi....................... Nov. 10 March* 189 1888 Farish, John B.................................... Nov. 14 December 580 1891 Ferguson, Vincent........................... Mar. 8 May 257 1917 Finucane, T. R.................................... Mar. 22 February* 118 1921 Foch, Ferdinand................................... Mar. 20 1885 Foucar, Edouard I....................... Jan. 3 March 167 1880 Francklyn, Charles G............................. Jan. 11 April 214 1925 Friedl, Arthur J.............................. July 9 September 435 1894 Fuller, James W. Jr............................... April 4 1876 . Goodale, Charles W.............................. April 11 May 258 1912 Graybill, John..........................Dec. 11 June* 320 1887 Gritzner, F. A.................................. Mar. 26 July 394 1906 Gunther, C. Godfrey.............................. Deo. 26 February* 118 1900 Haggen, Edward A.............................. Apr. 22 October 488 1895 Hall, Benjamin M........................Nov. 19 March* 189 1913 Harper, Walter S................................. Feb. 15 August 394 1921 Hawley, William S................................ Apr. 20 June 298 1920 Herd, Walter ... . . . ..... Aug. 23 September 435 1889 Holt, Marmadtjke B............................... Dec. 26 February* 118 1928 Husk, Albert D .... ................June 9 December 580 1920 Hutchinson, S. Pemberton......................... Feb. 16 April 214 1926 Ivanoff, Constantine L............................ Mar. 7 June 298 1914 Jaeger, Frederick..... .............July 28 October 488 1891 Jennings, Robert E.......................Oct. 30 December 580 1922 Johnson, Homar L................................. Sept. 17 October 483 1927 Johnson, Homer H................................. Mar. 21 May 257 1918 Jones, Jesse L ..... ...............Jan. 22 April 214 1892 Jones, Thomas J................................... June 18 October 488 1883 JoOet, Cavalier H................................. Mar. 29 May 258 1881 Kennedy, John S . . . . ... ..........Apr. 22 August 394 1881 Kennedy,- Hugh.................................... May 23 September 435 1895 Kebvin, James H................................... September October 488 1926 Kkom, L. J........................................ Dec. 24 January* 64 1905 La Follette, Harvey M........................... Sept. 19 November 538 1920 MacDonald, Alexander............................ May August 394 1904 Marengo, Paolo................................... May 257 1925 Maxwell, Allison R............................... May 7 November 538

Jan 1, 1930

By E. H. Boswell, E. M. Cushing

The Mississippi embayment east of the Mississippi River is part of a vast geologic and hydrologic province. The abundance of water available is largely responsible for the agricultural history of the area and is perhaps the key factor in the rapidly accelerating trend toward industrialization. The multiple artesian aquifer systems that underlie the region and the alluvial aquifer along the Mississippi River are virtually undeveloped sources of fresh water in that they are yielding only a fraction of the water available. The potential yield of the 12 aquifer systems is estimated to be about 25,000 mgd (million gpd) of which only about 600 mgd is presently being withdrawn. The amount of water in storage in these systems is about 1600 trillion gal. Ground water having a dissolved-solids content of less than 500 ppm is generally available at depths of less than 1000 ft, and water having a dissolved-solids content of less than 1000 ppm is available in some places to depths of more than 3000 ft. Iron is the most common troublesome chemical constituent in the ground water. Water in varying amounts is also available from streams within the region. The amount of water which originates within the region and which leaves it as streamflow during a year averages about 50 million acre-ft (about 45,000 mgd). An additional 375 million acre-ft (about 340,000 mgd), which originated outside the region, leaves the region as streamflow during an average year. Some streams have considerable flow during periods of no precipitation and the water during these periods generally has a low dissolved-solids content. Large quantities of water from streams and waterbearing sands (aquifers) are available in the Mississippi embayment east of the Mississippi River. Most of the region is underlain by aquifer systems that will yield large quantities of water to wells, making ground water the most readily available source of fresh water. About 90% of the water used in the region is obtained from wells. Streams have been used primarily to dispose of, and dilute, wastes that have been dumped into them. The Mississippi, Ohio and Tennessee rivers, and the lower parts of the Tombigee and Yazoo rivers also serve as a means of transportation. This nominally water-rich region receives from 48 to 56 in. of precipitation in average years and is crossed by several large rivers. The largest, the Mississippi River, is the western boundary of the region discussed in this paper. The economy of the region is basically agricultural, but industry has become increasingly important since World War 11. The diversification and mechanization of agriculture have resulted in a surplus of manpower, most of which is being absorbed by the expansion of industry. Further industrial expansion probably will occur because of the available manpower, natural resources and economical transportation. Increasing demands on available water supplies will be made and the future economic growth of the region will be largely dependent upon wise utilization and management of the water resources.

Jan 1, 1969

By Robert M. Funk, James E. Lawver

The development of a laboratory and pilot-scale high-tension electrostatic flowsheet for the production of iron-ore super concentrates having silica contents in the range of 0.1% is presented, A variety of hematite and magnetite ores were tested with this flowsheet, and the pertinent metallurgical data are given. The applications and limitations of this process are brought out in terms of both practical and theoretical considerations. There have been many new developments in the past few years that have required mineral beneficiation engineers to consider new techniques for iron-ore concentration. Developments in iron powder metallurgy, and particularly the making of sheet metal directly from high-purity iron-ore concentrates, and the concept of using metallized pellets as a substitute for scrap in electric-furnace steelmaking have created demands for what is commonly referred to as iron-ore superconcen-trates. In most cases, specifications for superconcentrates are that they contain less than 0.1% total gangue, with some applications requiring less than 0.05% gangue. To produce these concentrates, new and modified processes are being developed, and the three methods receiving attention as the primary concentrating methods are: 1) Magnetic separation in which dry rotor-type equipment is used for magnetite and the high-intensity magnets are used for hematite. 2) Amine flotation. 3) "High-tension" electrostatic separation (or, elec-trodynamic concentration). This paper examines the high-tension electrostatic process in terms of its limitations and abilities for the production of iron-ore superconcentrates. A technically effective and simple flowsheet was developed through laboratory and 5 and 100-ton pilot-plant studies for the production of concentrates containing from 0.02 to 0.20% SiO, with iron recoveries between 85 and 90%. The process is also shown to be economically feasible. Laboratory Test Program Separation Characteristics: The suitability of the electrostatic high-tension method for iron-ore supercon-centration stems from the fundamental mechanism governing the process, i.e., particles are separated on the basis of differences in electrical conductivities. This conductivity is a characteristic property of minerals, and if the difference between the conductivities of two min- erals is great enough, then their separation can be performed by a high-tension machine. As shown in Figs. 1 and 2, the critical factor is the time necessary for the particle charge density, which is established by a corona discharge field, to decay to a level such that the centrifugal force acting on the particle exceeds its electrostatic, or image, force. At this point, the particle can leave the rotor at some trajectory and fall into an appropriate product receptacle. This decay time is directly proportional to electrical conductivity, and the process variables, such as feed rate, rotor speed, electrode configuration, and rotor composition, are selected to optimize the ability of the separator to resolve different conductivities. Table 1 lists the measured conductivities for some of the iron and gangue minerals used in developing the flowsheet. These results were obtained by using the conductivity cell described by Lawver and Wright.' The discharge curve of most minerals that lend themselves to super concentration by high-tension is so fast that the

Jan 1, 1971

By Ta M. Li

How will phosphate producers in southeastern Idaho fare with growing governmental regulations and environmentalism of the late 1970's? With a similarity that is reminiscent of the battles between the coal industry and environmental-conservation groups earlier in the decade, Idaho's future growth and a nation's need for phosphate fertilizer products remain uncertain. The catalyst that brought the issue to the forefront was the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) addressing the development of phosphate resources in southeastern Idaho. Although the final EIS was published in August 1977, resolution of rational and orderly growth in this potentially vital region remains stifled as Secretary of the Interior Cecil Andrus virtually "sits" on it.

Jan 1, 1978

By F. W. Bowdish

Analysis of data on the equilibrium exchange of sodium ions from salt solutions for calcium ions, from various fractions of an oxidized calcareous iron ore from Lorraine, France, strongly suggests that the calcium may be attached to the solid by only one of its bonds. Nearly equal values were found for the equilibrium expression from data covering concentration ranges of 1000 fold for the salt and 235 fold for the ion-exchangeable calcium. Differences indicated between the exchangeable calcium contents of the slime and the sandy portions of the ore, as well as the equilibrium relationship itself, are of importance in the flotation of the ore. During an experimental program on the flotation of oxidized calcareous iron ores from Lorraine, France, ion-exchangeable calcium was found in the ore. Because this source of calcium ions, if not controlled, could thwart all efforts at flotation, an extensive study was made of the phenomenon. The part of that study reported here was to obtain data on the equilibrium established between ore solids and solutions of sodium chloride, and to analyze the data to try to understand better the physical chemistry of the exchange. The ore contains oolites of goethite and quartz grains embedded in a matrix consisting of calcite and a brown cement believed to be the residue from oxidation of the silicate minerals found in fresh unoxidized ore. When ground, a substantial fraction of the ore becomes a fine slime in which is concentrated more than half of the alumina content of the ore. It is believed that the alumina occurs as unidentified clay minerals with which most of the ion-exchange capacity of the ore is associated. A preliminary experiment on the exchange of ions from the ore for sodium ions from solutions of NaCl showed that calcium was about ten times as abundant as magnesium in the exchange solutions. Thus calcium was the predominant ion in causing difficulties with flotation, and it was the only one for which data was obtained in this study. It is believed that the omission of magnesium ion exchange from consideration does not invalidate the results. It is possible, however, that inclusion of magnesium in the analyses and calculations or its prior elimination from the samples would have improved the consistency of the results. EXPERIMENTAL Data about the equilibrium exchange of sodium from solutions for calcium from the solids were obtained using two different samples of material. The solids

Jan 1, 1963

By T. Price, H. A. Holl, A. P. Greenough, A

UdIN, Shaler, and ulff' first used wires for the determination of the surface energy of a solid metal. A gage length was marked by tying knots in the wires, which were then suspended in a cylinder of the same metal, heated in an inert atmosphere for the appropriate time, cooled to room temperature, and finally removed from the furnace so that the lengths of the wires could be measured. With iron wires, difficulties associated with deformation during the phase changeszp3 made it necessary to measure the gage lengths at the tem-

Jan 1, 1964

CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. By George M. Fowler 2 Question 1-Is Structural Deformation of Some Character Always Necessary for the Migration of Mineralizing Solutions, Especially in Limestone or Other Dense Rock? DISCUSSION by: A. M. Bateman 10 S. F. Kelly 15 C. H. Behre, Jr 8, 13 G. B. Langford 13 T. M. Broderick 11 H. E. McKinstry 6 R. H. Clarke 13 D. H. McLaughlin 8 J. D. Forrester for M. H. Gidel . . . 4 W. H. Newhouse 13 G. M. Fowler 2, 6, 11 R. H. Sales 6 L. C. Graton 11 Edward Sampson 12 R. D. Hoffman 10 J. S. Stevenson 7 I. B. Joralemon 11 L. B. Wright 2 Question 2-What Are Some of the Chemical and Physical Characteristics in Cer¬tain Beds within a Limestone Formation that Determine Their Favorable or Unfavorable Aspects as Reservoirs for Ore and Other Introduced Minerals? DISCUSSION by: G. W. Bain 17 G. M. Fowler 21 C. H. Behre, Jr 21 L. C. Graton 18 J. S. Brown 16 G. F. Loughlin 18 E. L. Bruce 19 R. H. Sales 19 R. H. Clarke 20 A. K. Snelgrove 20 Question 3-Are There Any Criteria by Which One Can Determine When Min¬ing Operations Have Reached the Roots of an Ore Deposit? DISCUSSION by: J. M. Boutwell 29 G. B. Langford 29 T. M. Broderick 28 G. F. Loughlin 25 E. Y. Dougherty 27 R. H. Sales 24 G. M. Fowler 22 F. A. Thomson 26 I. B. Joralemon 22 Edward Wisser 30 General S. F. Kelly 35 References 36

Jan 1, 1940