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By Fred W. Stiefel

THIS paper covers the operation and maintenance of Diesel locomotives underground on a portion of the Delaware River Aqueduct.[t] This part of the tunnel is r5 miles long, with shafts 14 ft. in diameter spaced about 5 miles apart. These shafts (2, 2a and 3) are 825 ft., 1551 and 840 ft. deep, respectively. The grade of the tunnel is almost level, except for the 12,100 ft. north of shaft 2, which has a grade of 2.31 per cent. The tunnel is circular, 19 to 19 ft. in diameter, It lies at a depth of 400 ft. below sea level, with a maximum overburden of 2400 feet. The tunnel driving was carried on in six headings, using 15 storage-battery locomotive each of 13 gross tons and having a [inum] speed of 8 miles per hour. The longest haul was 3 miles, which proved to be the maximum distance for which storage-battery locomotives could be employed economically for the amount of material to be moved. One locomotive was used for switching cars at each heading, one for switching cars at the bottom of each shaft and one on the main-line haul from the heading to the shaft. The maximum amount of material hoisted in one shaft from two headings when 104 ft. of tunnel was driven in 24 hr. was 1000 cu. yd., or about 2000 tons of rock in place. The total quantity excavated was 950,000 cu. yd. (1,500,000 tons of rock). The tunnel-lining operations using con¬crete presented a problem of hauling a maximum distance of 5 miles in the tunnel. The concrete-placing equipment had a capacity of about 2000 cu. yd., or 4000 tons in 24 hours. Experience had shown that storage-battery equipment could not handle this quantity of material within the time required at the distance of 5 miles, Trolley-locomotive haulage was considered dangerous and expensive, and would cause interference because transmission equipment would be required. Therefore the performance of Diesel locomotives of 160 hp., with a speed of 18 miles per hour, in comparison with that of other types of locomotives, was studied. CHOICE OF LOCOMOTIVES In deciding upon the type of locomotive to be used for the 5-mile haul, four alternatives were considered, as follows: I. To purchase additional storage-battery locomotives with the necessary batteries over the 6 locomotives and 12 batteries available. 2. To convert the existing battery locomotives to the trolley type. 3. To purchase new trolley locomotives. 4. To purchase Diesel locomotives. PROPOSITION No. I The go-hp. storage-battery locomotives available (each weighing about 12 tons), when hauling a load of 64 tons, with a drawbar pull of about 1900 lb. on a level track, developed a speed of 8 miles per hour and could make five round trips in 8 hr. with a

Jan 1, 1942

By R. Schuhmann

As a response to rapidly growing specialization in various branches of metallurgy, it is proposed that undergraduate education in metallurgical engineering should be built up around four principal scientific themes: 1—thermodynamics, 2—structure, 3—mechanics, and 4-—rate processes. THE following quotation from a recent article by von Bertalanffyl describes very well the situation which today challenges curriculum designers in all branches of science and engineering: "Modern scientific education is presented with a well known dilemma. The amount of facts in modern science, and in any of its smallest branches, is enormous. Life in general, and the academic curriculum in particular, is short. The abundance of factual data, as well as the intricacy of modern scientific techniques, experimental and theoretical, necessitates utmost specialization. This specialization, unavoidable though it is, involves serious danger for both the education of the scientist and the social function of science. "In so far as the advancement of science is concerned, history shows that interconnection of different fields and problems is a most important basis of progress. Many of the paramount achievements of science arose on borderlines, and from the synthesis of formerly separate fields . . ." Specialization in subfields of metallurgy has become a serious educational problem only in about the last decade. The growth in specialization, almost as a necessity, has paralleled the rapid growth in metallurgical knowledge during this period. Moreover, in planning future educational policies, the educator must be concerned not only with the rate of increase in metallurgical knowledge and with the concomitant rate of increase in specialization, but also with the second derivatives, that is, with the rates of increase of the rates of increase. These second derivatives are positive and large; the growths being dealt with are self-catalyzing, or like a chain reaction. As a measure of specialization, the length of the list of different kinds of metallurgies can be considered, the kinds of metallurgy which represent one person's particular interests and those of other practicing metallurgists. To start with, there are physical metallurgy, process metallurgy, and mineral dressing, then mechanical metallurgy, metal processing, foundry metallurgy, corrosion, solid state physics, high temperature metallurgy, welding, powder metallurgy, nuclear metallurgy, etc. Each of these fields is growing so rapidly that any one metallurgist can hope at best to keep up to date in only one or two. What is the impact of all these "metallurgies" on metallurgical education and metallurgical curricula? In answering this question, it can be said, first, that educators have resisted fairly well the temptations to split up metallurgy, with different curricula, different options, degrees with different labels, and the like—degrees are still given in plain Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering. In other ways, though, the pressures of specialization have had noticeable effects. There is a tendency to think of these "metallurgies" as the important subdivisions of Metallurgical Engineering and to work up

Jan 1, 1956

By F. J. Fayers, S. A. Hovanessian

The one-dimensional displacement equation for a homogeneous porous medium, including the effects of gravity and capillaty forces, has been solved by a numerical method. A finite-difference scheme is developed for obtaining saturation, pressure and fractional flow profiles in waterflood recovety problems. From the numerical examples given, it is concluded that the gravitational forces have a pronounced effect on the saturation profiles and the pressure distribution curves of the system. INTRODUCTION Within the past 20 years, a number of papers have appeared in the literature dealing with the quantitative treatment of waterflood recovery problems. In their celebrated paper, Buckley and Leverett1 described a method for calculating saturation profiles when the effects of capillary pressure and gravity are excluded. Terwilliger, et al,2 included the effect of gravity in their theoretical and experimental investigation of oil recovery problems and obtained close correlation between experiment and theory. welge3 described a simplified method for obtaining the average saturation and the oil recovery from an oil reservoir. The effect of gravity can be included in this calculation. More recently (1958) Douglas, et al,4 presented a method for calculating saturation profiles which includes the effect of capillary pressure. The authors start with the one-dimensional displacement equation (which is nonlinear in the derivative) and, by a change of variable, transform this equation to a semi-linear partial differential equation. This equation is then solved by a finite-difference method on a high-speed digital computer. Fayers and Sheldon5 obtained the solution of the one-dimensional displacement equation by directly replacing the differential equation by a finite-difference equation. The effects of capillary pressure and gravity were in- cluded in their solution. Here, since the movement of the foot of the saturation front is governed by a separate equation, the elapsed time in attaining a particular saturation profile cannot be obtained. The results of these two papers indicate that the inclusion of capillary forces eliminates the triple-valued Buckley-Leverett saturation profiles. In the present paper, the one-dimensional displacement equation for a homogeneous permeable medium, including the effects of capillary and gravity forces, is solved. The method of solution resembles that described in the paper by Douglas, et al, since it involves a similar transformation of variable. However, it extends their work in that the effect of gravity is included and, in addition, pressure profiles may be calculated. Also, the functions of saturation [kro(S), krw(S) and Pc (S) ] required are entered in tabular form rather than as low-order polynomials. This simplifies data preparation and permits the use of a greater range of function types. Unlike the method of Fayers and Sheldon, the corresponding elapsed time required for the development of each saturation profile is calculated and, also, saturation profiles may be calculated after breakthrough. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The dimensionless form of the one-dimensional displacement equation for a homogeneous porous medium as obtained from Darcy's law and material balance relations can be written as follows.

By W. J. Reagan

All of the material described in the following paper is within the following specifications: carbon, 0.50 to 0.85 per cent; phosphorus and sulfur, 0.04 per cent max.; manganese, 0.60 to 0.85 per cent; silicon, 0.20 to 0.30 per cent. Steels with much lower carbon contents can be handled in exactly the same manner. One of the first things necessary to basic open-hearth slag control is uniformity of charge, particularly as to the silicon content and the percentage of lime charged. Our past work has shown that the silicon content of the charge is more important than the carbon content in determining the carbon at which a heat will melt. We have found that by keeping the silicon content of the charge about 0.60 to 0.65 per cent, and with a lime charge of about 7 per cent (limestone equivalent), our heats melt sufficiently high in carbon to allow a moderate feed of ore and the slag will be of low iron oxide content. In making a heat of 0.75 carbon steel we endeavor to have the heat melt at about 1.20 per cent carbon. The iron oxide content of the finishing slag depends upon the final phosphorus desired; for a given ratio of lime-silica in the slag, the lower the phosphorus desired in the final steel, the higher the iron oxide content of the finishing slag must be. By reducing the lime charge to a minimum, the heats melt faster, and by keeping the silicon content at the desired figure the heats melt with a high SiO2 slag, which has been shown in previous work to give a low iron oxide slag. In most of our work, using a 180,000-lb. charge and with basic pig containing about 1.20 per cent silicon, we use a lime charge of 8500 lb. of limestone and 2000 lb. of burnt lime. The pig charge is about 48 per cent of cold pig, and the charge contains a large percentage of works scrap. This causes a heat to melt with about 1.20 to 1.30 per cent carbon, for a heat that will finish about 0.75 per cent carbon. This gives a heat that will need a feed of about 2000 lb. of ore, and also a slag with an FeO content of about 4 to 5 per cent at melting. The additional FeO obtained from the ore addition will bring the FeO in the slag at tapping to about 6 to 7 per cent. It is necessary to carry quite a fluid slag to prevent pickup of FeO, as a too heavy slag causes FeO to build up in it, giving a finishing slag with a greater FeO than is desired. By adjusting the lime charge of a basic open-hearth heat, a very sensitive adjustment of the slag may be obtained. The figures in Table 1

Jan 1, 1935

By Maurice Rey, H. Brevers

Through circumstances connected with the war, the senior author lost his records, therefore it has been impossible to include numerical data in this paper. The arsenical quicksilver ore investigated had been roasted, with poor metallurgical results. The vapor-tension temperature curves of mercury and arsenious trioxide are similar, and the arsenical compound hampers the coalescence of mercury drops in the condenser and is the cause of large stack losses. The ore was a gray limestone carrying small amounts of carbon and mineralized with cinnabar and two arsenic minerals, realgar (As2S2) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS). The proportion of realgar often exceeded that of cinnabar; the proportion of arsenopyrite was smaller. The grade of the ore varied between 0.8 and 4 per cent Hg. The problem was to make a high-grade mercury concentrate, as free from arsenic as possible. The water used throughout the testing was hard, having a pH of about 8. Flotation of Realgar Realgar showed a very strong tendency to float. It formed a film at the surface of the pulp and floated in abundance with only pine oil. Therefore an attempt was made to float the realgar before the cinnabar, but this was not very successful; the percentage of mercury in the realgar concentrate could never be brought below 2 or 3 per cent. Cinnabar slimed easily and floated with pine oil, so that some of it always accompanied the realgar. There was also the question of the cinnabar-arseno-pyrite separation. On further investigation it was found that realgar can be floated not only with pine oil but even better with a combination of hydrocarbons and pine oil. Washing the ore with ether revealed that it contained hydrocarbons, which helped to float the realgar. In this connection it belongs to the same class as carbon, sulphur and talc. It can be floated also with a xanthate, when activated by a heavy-metal salt. The conditions favoring the two types of flotation are opposed, as activation by a copper salt facilitates xanthate flotation (in fact, is even necessary to it), whereas it hinders pine oil and petroleum flotation. One type of flotation can be termed non-polar and the other polar, a distinction that has been stressed in a previous paper.' Depression of Realgar and Flotation of Cinnabar Many chemicals were tested in an attempt to float the cinnabar and depress the realgar. Finally starch rendered soluble with caustic soda was tried, also several grades of commercial soluble starch, and dextrin was found to be the best and the most convenient reagent. Several of these starch preparations have a strong flocculating effect on the pulp, which is a distinct disadvantage. Dextrin, with its low flocculating power, is excellent. It is noteworthy that starch preparations are also depressants for carbon and talc, so that the fact apparently has a general

Jan 1, 1943

By W. R. Aufricht, E. H. Koepf

The theory, measurement, and application of capillary forces in reservoir rock have been treated ex-tensively in the various petroleum publications.1,2,3,4 These forces are of prime importance in oil production, and data on capillary properties are among the most important tools used in the study of reservoir mechanics. The principal application of measured capillary pressure data by the production and reservoir engineer is in the determination of the initial distribution and mobility of fluids in the reservoir. The distribution refers to the magnitude of the oil and interstitial water saturations under capillary equilibrium conditions and to their variation throughout the reservoir as a result of changes in rock properties and nearness to free water. The magnitude of the water (or oil) saturation, as well as the porosity, is required in volumetric calculations of oil in place. In low permeability reservoirs, where long transition zones are common, the magnitude of the oil content, even below the depth interval where commercial rates of flow of oil can be obtained, must be evaluated since this oil contains energy available to the production of the remainder of the reservoir. The mobility of the water phase is of particular importance in water-flood calculations since mobile water may condemn what would otherwise be a successful water flood. In reservoirs with predominantly small pores, high immobile water contents are possible. Conversely, reservoirs with predominantly large pores may contain mobile water even though the interstitial water contents are relatively low. This presentation reviews the distribution and mobility of interstitial water contents as determined from capillary pressure data and shows typical data for various types of carbonate reservoirs. A discussion of the variations found in different types of carbonate reservoirs is given. DISCUSSION Interpretation of Laboratory Data Fig. 1 is a typical laboratory capillary Pressure curve where water saturation as Per cent of Pore space is plotted vs capillary Pressure (psig) for an air-water system. This par- ticular curve was obtained by measurement on a sample of San Andres dolomite with intergranular-type porosity. The sample studied had a permeability of 10.0 md and a porosity of 18.8 per cent. The capillary pressure-saturation relationship illustrated is an inherent property of the rock (a function of the size and distribution of the pores) and represents the ability of this water-wet rock to retain water against the pressure differential exerted by a non-wetting fluid (oil or gas) to remove it. In the laboratory a known pressure differential is exerted from a pressure source; in the reservoir the pressure differential is controlled by the density difference between the hvdrocarbons and the water. The laboratory capillary pressure values may be converted into terms of equivalent height of water column using known values of reservoir oil and water density and measured or average values of interfacial tension

Jan 1, 1958

By Fred W. Stiefel

THIS paper covers the operation and maintenance of Diesel locomotives underground on a portion of the Delaware River Aqueduct.[t] This part of the tunnel is 15 miles long, with shafts 14 ft. in diameter spaced about 5 miles apart. These shafts (2, 2a and 3) are 825 ft., 1551 and 840 ft. deep, respectively. The grade of the tunnel is almost level, except for the 12,100 ft. north of shaft 2, which has a grade of 2.31 per cent. The tunnel is circular, 17 to 19 ft. in diameter. It lies at a depth of 400 ft. below sea level, with a maximum over-burden of 2400 feet. The tunnel driving was carried on in six headings, using 15 storage-battery locomotives, each of 13 gross tons and having a maximum speed of 8 miles per hour. The longest haul was 3 miles, which proved to be the maximum distance for which storage-battery locomotives could be employed economically for the amount of material to be moved. One locomotive was used for switching cars at each heading, one for switching cars at the bottom of each shaft and one on the main-line haul from the heading to the shaft. The maximum amount of material hoisted in one shaft from two headings when 104 ft. of tunnel was driven in 24 hr. was 1000 cu. yd., or about 2000 tons of rock in place. The total quantity excavated was 750,000 cu. yd. (1,500,000 tons of rock). The tunnel-lining operations using concrete presented a problem of hauling a maximum distance of 5 miles in the tunnel. The concrete-placing equipment had a capacity of about 2000 cu. yd., or 4000 tons in 24 hours. Experience had shown that storage-battery equipment could not handle this quantity of material within the time required at the distance of 5 miles. Trolley-locomotive haulage was considered dangerous and expensive, and would cause interference because transmission equipment would be required. Therefore the performance of Diesel locomotives of 160 hp., with a speed of 18 miles per hour, in comparison with that of other types of locomotives, was studied. CHOICE OF LOCOMOTIVES In deciding upon the type of locomotive to be used for the 5-mile haul, four alternatives were considered, as follows: I. To purchase additional storage-battery locomotives with the necessary batteries over the 6 locomotives and 12 batteries available. 2. To convert the existing battery locomotives to the trolley type. 3. To purchase new trolley locomotives. 4. To purchase Diesel locomotives. PROPOSITION No. I The 90-hp. storage-battery locomotives available (each weighing about 12 tons), when hauling a load of 64 tons, with a drawbar pull of about 1900 lb. on a level track, developed a speed of 8 miles per hour and could make five round trips in 8 hr. with a

Jan 1, 1942

By H. H. Stout

In the early fall of 1925, the writer was conducting, in the Ledoux and Co. laboratory, New York, experiments directed toward ascertaining the effect on its impurity content when cathode copper was subjected to a current of various gases at an elevated temperature below the melting point. The apparatus consisted of a vertical I-in. dia. silica tube about 12 in. long, heated on the outside. The cathodes were broken to pass 3/8-in. mesh, and a current of various different gases was passed up through a 4-in. long column of these loose cathode particles in the vertical tube furnace. Temperature was maintained to 1500º to 1600ºF. and the gas treatments lasted from 3 to 6 hr. The writer observed that whenever reducing gas (H2 or CO) was used, these cathode particles stuck together at points of contact with each other. The cohesion was so marked and tenacious that an examination was made of the fractured surfaces, when cathode particles were broken from the cluster. Crystal growth was always found to have taken place across the surfaces where separate particles were in contact, but only after all oxides, sulphates, etc., had been completely removed. The idea of a possible new process was then conceived and was disclosed to A. M. Smoot (V. P. Ledoux and Co.) with intent to obtain his views. The first conception as given Smoot was "to gas-clean broken cathodes, put them in an extrusion press, solidify and extrude them at around 1500ºF." Smoot's reaction, after a few moments considera- tion, was, "It looks perfectly all right to me.'' The writer and his assistants, W. H. Osborn and H. H. Stout, Jr., after conferring as to ways and means, decided to go ahead with preliminary laboratory experiments, which, it was thought, would move the new process from the possible to the probable. This program followed a course indicated by three basic considerations: 1. Since brittle cathodes were often unintentionally produced, it seemed probable that the laws controlling this type of deposition could be ascertained. 2. We had already proved the gas-cleaning feature. 3. There remained to prove: whether a sound, homogeneous metal billet could be produced with crystal growth established over the entire surface of each individual particle in the billet; and, if so, what would be the physical properties? Osborn arranged with Columbia University for conducting experiments in its research laboratory to prove or disprove the third item; Columbia assigned C. A. Phillipi, Jr. to assist in the project. A press with a cylinder 2 in. high and of I-in. dia. was used. It was surrouilded and heated by a resistance coil 01 Nichrome wire. Broken tough cathodes were used. Experimental Procedure The first run took place March 18, 1926. The resistance wire gave out when temperature of 1000ºF. was obtained. Pressure was immediately applied: perceptible ram movement stopped when 39,000 lb. per sq. in. on the copper was reached, with a maxi-

Jan 1, 1941

By Fred W. Stiefel

This paper covers the operation and maintenance of Diesel locomotives underground on a portion of the Delaware River Aqueduct. † This part of the tunnel is 15 miles long, with shafts 14 ft. in diameter spaced about 5 miles apart. These shafts (2, 2a and 3) are 825 ft., 1551 and 840 ft. deep, respectively. The grade of the tunnel is almost level, except for the 12,100 ft. north of shaft 2, which has a grade of 2.31 per cent. The tunnel is circular, 17 to 19 ft. in diameter. It lies at a depth of 400 ft. below sea level, with a maximum overburden of 2400 feet. The tunnel driving was carried on in six headings, using 15 storage-battery locomotives, each of 13 gross tons and having a maximum speed of 8 miles per hour. The longest haul was 3 miles, which proved to be the maximum distance for which storage-battery locomotives could be employed economically for the amount of material to be moved. One locomotive was used for switching cars at each heading, one for switching cars at the bottom of each shaft and one on the main-line haul from the heading to the shaft. The maximum amount of material hoisted in one shaft from two headings when 104 ft. of tunnel was driven in 24 hr. was 1000 cu. yd., or about 2000 tons of rock in place. The total quantity excavated was 750,000 cu. yd. (1,500,000 tons of rock). The tunnel-lining operations using concrete presented a problem of hading a maximum distance of 5 miles in the tunnel. The concrete-placing equipment had a capacity of about 2000 CU. yd., or 4000 tons in 24 hours. Experience had shown that storage-battery equipment could not handle this quantity of material within the time required at the distance of 5 miles. Trolley-locomotive haulage was considered dangerous and expensive, and would cause interference because transmission equipment would be required. Therefore the performance of Diesel locomotives of 160 hp., with a speed of 18 miles per hour, in comparison with that of other types of locomotives, was studied. Choice of Locomotives In deciding upon the type of locomotive to be used for the 5-mile haul, four alternatives were considered, as follows: I. To purchase additional storage-battery locomotives with the necessary batteries over the 6 locomotives and 12 batteries available. 2. To convert the existing battery locomotives to the trolley type. 3. To purchase new trolley locomotives. 4. To purchase Diesel locomotives. Proposition No. i The 90-hp. storage-battery locomotives the (each weighing about 12 tons), when hauling a load of 64 tons, with a drawbar pull of about 1900 lb. on a level track, developed a speed of 8 miles per hour and could make five round trips in 8 hr. with a

Jan 1, 1943

By J. H. Frye, J. W. Caum

One of the most important methods of increasing the hardness of metals is alloying. In spite of the widespread use of alloys, the fundamental mechanism of alloy hardening is little understood. This is true even of the simplest form of alloy, the primary substitutional solid solution in which solute atoms substitute for solvent atoms at random in the crystal lattice of the latter. A fundamental understanding of the mechanism of solid-solution hardening would be important, both because of the widespread use of alloys of this type and because of the light that might be thrown on the mechanism of hardening in more complicated alloys. The present investigation covers the hardness of primary substitutional solid solutions of zinc, gallium, germanium, and arsenic in copper. All of these are B subgroup elements from the third period of the periodic table. Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, and As are in groups I, 11, 111, IV, and V, respectively, and lie just to the right of the transition elements. Because of their cost, it is unlikely that Ga-Cu and Ge-Cu solutions will ever be of commercial importance, but the intent of this study has been to discover some of the fundamentals of solid-sdstion hardening and it has been demonstrated that such a study is far more likely to be fruitful if alloys are made up on the basis of position of the constituent elements in the periodic table than if commercially important alloys are used. Many investigations have been made of the hardness of substitutional solid solutions, but lack of attention to purity of the metals, infrequent grain-size control, and the use of varying testing techniques have virtually invalidated any comparisons. The purpose of most investigations has been to solve immediate problems and not to solve the primary problem: Why do solid solutions usually have a greater hardness than pure metals? Previous Work Theories have been advanced to account for the hardness of solid solutions, but relatively little experimental work has been done. Perhaps the first experimental work of merit was that of Norbury1 on copper alloys. He showed that for several alloys there was a correspondence between the hardness of one atomic per cent solutions and atomic volume of the solutions. More recently Brick, Martin, and Anger2 have investigated the effect of various solute elements on the hardness of copper. They concluded that the hardening effect of these solutes depended "primarily on the difference in atomic volume of solute and solvent or, relatedly, upon the parameter change of the solvent or the extent of solid solubility." They also observed the effect of these elements on hardness and texture developed by rolling and by annealing of rolled material. Austin3 examined the hardness and response to heat-treatment of various iron solid solutions. Frye and Hume-Rothery4 measured the hardness of a number of silver solid solutions containing approximately 1 References are at the end of the paper.

Jan 1, 1943

By Frank Marotta, Louis B. Lesem, Frank Greytok, John J. McKetta

Although one of the primary variables in the calculation of the flowing bottom-hole pressure in gas wells from surface measurements is the temperature at any point and its distribution in the flow-string, only few experimental data are available in the literature and little attention has been given to analysis of the problem. Virtually all of the recently published methods of calculating flowing bottom-hole pressures depend on the assumption that either the temperature is constant at some average value or that the variation is linear with depth. The purposes of this work are to analyze the problem theoretically and to verify the analysis by comparison with experimental data so that practical problems in the analysis of the behavior of gas wells can be solved with greater accuracy, reliability, and ease. MATHEMATICAL OUTLINE OF PROBLEM Assuming that: 1. The mass velocity and chemical composition of the gas stream are constant and in normal gas well operations, the change in linear velocity in the entire flow-string is trivial, 2. The product of the density and heat capacity of the gas is constant, 3. No horizontal temperature gradient exists in the gas stream, 4. Net flow of heat by conduction within the formation and in the gas stream in the vertical direction is trivial in magnitude and can be neglected, 5. The regional vertical geothermal gradient is constant, and 6. The temperature of the gas entering the borehole is constant, and equal to that of the reservoir, a set of two simultaneous, linear partial differential equations with appropriate boundary conditions was derived to describe the temperature distribution in the gas stream and the surrounding formation. These equations were solved by operational techniques for the distribution of temperature in the gas stream. The resulting integrals were evaluated numerically on an IBM 604 at the Machine Accounting Div. of the Railroad Commission of Texas. DERIVATION OF FUNCTIONS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE The physical system is a circular hole of radius a in an infinite medium with thermal conductivity K, density p8, and heat capacity c,. Under shut-in conditions the well is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings and the increment in temperature is given by - ?T3/L x. Gas of density pg and heat capacity c.. flows upwardly through this hole in the direction of increasing x with a linear velocity W. Writing a heat balance on an element of gas ?x in thickness, convective heat transfer + conductive heat transfer + energy required to lift a unit mass of fluid = change in energy content. pa2W po Co To - pa2Wpo Co To x+xx - 2apK?x ?T8/?r r=a - Wpa2 po?x/778 = CoPopa2?x?To/?t... Dividing by (copopa2?x) and taking the limit as ?x tends to zero, -W (?To/?x + 1/778Co) + 2 K/a Po Co ?T3/?r r=u = ?To/?t

Jan 1, 1958

By Fred W. Stiefel

This paper covers the operation and maintenance of Diesel locomotives underground on a portion of the Delaware River Aqueduct. † This part of the tunnel is 15 miles long, with shafts 14 ft. in diameter spaced about 5 miles apart. These shafts (2, 2a and 3) are 825 ft., 1551 and 840 ft. deep, respectively. The grade of the tunnel is almost level, except for the 12,100 ft. north of shaft 2, which has a grade of 2.31 per cent. The tunnel is circular, 17 to 19 ft. in diameter. It lies at a depth of 400 ft. below sea level, with a maximum overburden of 2400 feet. The tunnel driving was carried on in six headings, using 15 storage-battery locomotives, each of 13 gross tons and having a maximum speed of 8 miles per hour. The longest haul was 3 miles, which proved to be the maximum distance for which storage-battery locomotives could be employed economically for the amount of material to be moved. One locomotive was used for switching cars at each heading, one for switching cars at the bottom of each shaft and one on the main-line haul from the heading to the shaft. The maximum amount of material hoisted in one shaft from two headings when 104 ft. of tunnel was driven in 24 hr. was 1000 cu. yd., or about 2000 tons of rock in place. The total quantity excavated was 750,000 cu. yd. (1,500,000 tons of rock). The tunnel-lining operations using concrete presented a problem of hading a maximum distance of 5 miles in the tunnel. The concrete-placing equipment had a capacity of about 2000 CU. yd., or 4000 tons in 24 hours. Experience had shown that storage-battery equipment could not handle this quantity of material within the time required at the distance of 5 miles. Trolley-locomotive haulage was considered dangerous and expensive, and would cause interference because transmission equipment would be required. Therefore the performance of Diesel locomotives of 160 hp., with a speed of 18 miles per hour, in comparison with that of other types of locomotives, was studied. Choice of Locomotives In deciding upon the type of locomotive to be used for the 5-mile haul, four alternatives were considered, as follows: I. To purchase additional storage-battery locomotives with the necessary batteries over the 6 locomotives and 12 batteries available. 2. To convert the existing battery locomotives to the trolley type. 3. To purchase new trolley locomotives. 4. To purchase Diesel locomotives. Proposition No. i The 90-hp. storage-battery locomotives the (each weighing about 12 tons), when hauling a load of 64 tons, with a drawbar pull of about 1900 lb. on a level track, developed a speed of 8 miles per hour and could make five round trips in 8 hr. with a

Jan 1, 1943

By D. V. Carter, Dan C. Williams, John R. Coombs

Exploration was active in East and East Central Texas during 1944. Ten oil fields were discovered during the year, of which four show promise of development. The discovery wells of the Sand Flat and Tyler, South fields were drilled to a depth greater than 10,000 ft., and the latter field now produces from the Pettit at a depth of 9890 ft. The Sand Flat well was plugged back to the Paluxy. The other two fields are Glen Rose producers near 8000 ft. The Pickton field produces from the Bacon Lime and Winnsboro from the Rodessa section. The Eylau field, Bowie County, was significant as the first Smackover production in Texas. Magnolia drilled a test in the Concord field, which topped salt. The most extensive and significant development in the district was the Carthage gas-condensate field. It expanded from the 8000 acres of last year to an estimated 190,000 acres, or about 300 sq. miles, and is not defined as yet. The first oil production in the Carthage area was made from the Travis Peak in 1944 in the Rogers Lacy's Cameron Lumber Company well No. I, on the northwestern side of the field. The New Hope field, Franklin County, scored the largest number of completions during 1944 with 24, bringing its total number of wells to 27. Two more pays were opened and produced as dual completions with the older horizons. The Manziel field, Wood County, had 19 new wells added during the year, for a total of 29, while the Pittsburgh field, Camp County, reached a total of 23 wells by completing 14 new ones. Material shortages and drilling restrictions dropped the total number of producing wells completed in the district from 171 during 1943 to 141 for 1944. Abandonments increased from 531 during 1943 to 609 for 1944. Of this number, 479 were in the East Texas field. Subsidy payments had very little effect in the district and it was mostly a few of the old fault-line fields that had any wells to fall within the requirements for subsidy payments. The prices of crude oil remained constant in the district except for increases as a result of subsidy payments. Production and Probation Wartime demands called for increased allowables for many fields, consequently the condensate and oil production for 1944 increased to 190,016,180, which is up 6.9 per cent over 1943. The East Texas field, of course, remained the principal producer of the district, accounting for 134,768'499 bbl. during the year, or 71 per cent of the district total production of condensate and oil. The field topped its own 1943 production by 4.8 per cent and became the first field in the world to produce 2 billion barrels of oil. The Hawkins field remained the second largest oil producer in the district, with 13,317,088 bbl. for the year, a drop of 6.8 per cent from 1943, while Van field was third with 11,635,708 bbl. The

Jan 1, 1945

By J. H. Frye, J. W. Caum

One of the most important methods of increasing the hardness of metals is alloying. In spite of the widespread use of alloys, the fundamental mechanism of alloy hardening is little understood. This is true even of the simplest form of alloy, the primary substitutional solid solution in which solute atoms substitute for solvent atoms at random in the crystal lattice of the latter. A fundamental understanding of the mechanism of solid-solution hardening would be important, both because of the widespread use of alloys of this type and because of the light that might be thrown on the mechanism of hardening in more complicated alloys. The present investigation covers the hardness of primary substitutional solid solutions of zinc, gallium, germanium, and arsenic in copper. All of these are B subgroup elements from the third period of the periodic table. Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, and As are in groups I, 11, 111, IV, and V, respectively, and lie just to the right of the transition elements. Because of their cost, it is unlikely that Ga-Cu and Ge-Cu solutions will ever be of commercial importance, but the intent of this study has been to discover some of the fundamentals of solid-sdstion hardening and it has been demonstrated that such a study is far more likely to be fruitful if alloys are made up on the basis of position of the constituent elements in the periodic table than if commercially important alloys are used. Many investigations have been made of the hardness of substitutional solid solutions, but lack of attention to purity of the metals, infrequent grain-size control, and the use of varying testing techniques have virtually invalidated any comparisons. The purpose of most investigations has been to solve immediate problems and not to solve the primary problem: Why do solid solutions usually have a greater hardness than pure metals? Previous Work Theories have been advanced to account for the hardness of solid solutions, but relatively little experimental work has been done. Perhaps the first experimental work of merit was that of Norbury1 on copper alloys. He showed that for several alloys there was a correspondence between the hardness of one atomic per cent solutions and atomic volume of the solutions. More recently Brick, Martin, and Anger2 have investigated the effect of various solute elements on the hardness of copper. They concluded that the hardening effect of these solutes depended "primarily on the difference in atomic volume of solute and solvent or, relatedly, upon the parameter change of the solvent or the extent of solid solubility." They also observed the effect of these elements on hardness and texture developed by rolling and by annealing of rolled material. Austin3 examined the hardness and response to heat-treatment of various iron solid solutions. Frye and Hume-Rothery4 measured the hardness of a number of silver solid solutions containing approximately 1 References are at the end of the paper.

Jan 1, 1943

By James W. Halley

"Fine-grained" steels have been standard products for many years. This paper describes an investigation of the effects of some of the more common grain-growth inhibitors used to produce these steels. The properties, response to heat-treatment, and the deoxidation practice necessary to produce "fine-grained" steels have been the subjects of numerous papers. It has been shown that a substantial quantity of aluminum is necessary to produce this type of steel, and it has been indicated that titanium and zirconium produce a similar result. For some time there was a lively argument between those who felt that aluminum refined the grain and those who felt that aluminum oxide was the effective agent. This argument subsided with an apparent victory for those promoting aluminum oxide. Most of the work on grain size has divided steels into two broad classifications based upon McQuaid and Ehn's original carburizing test at 1700°F or some similar test at this temperature. If the steel coarsened at this temperature, it was coarse grained, while if it did not it was he grained. Quantitative data concerning how much a certain amount of aluminum raised the coarsening temperature and affected the properties, all other factors being constant, are very meager. Similar information regarding titanium and zirconium is practically nonexistent. The published information on aluminum yields some quantitative information. Epstein, Nead and Washburn' gave the first quantitative information on the amount of aluminum necessary to prevent grain growth at 1700°F. They showed that the addition of a pound to a pound and a half of aluminum per ton (0.05 to 0.075 per cent) would assure steel that would not coarsen during a McQuaid-Ehn test at 1700°F. Herty, McBride and Houghg reported that a steel containing 0.020 per cent acid-soluble aluminum coarsened between 1742° and 1832°F., while steels containing 0.016 per cent and 0.017 per cent acid-soluble aluminum coarsened between 1652° and 1742°F. compared with similar aluminum-free steels that started to coarsen at 1580°F. Herty3 also showed a marked improvebent in low-temperature notched impact resistance with increasing acid-soluble aluminum up to 0.030 per cent. McQuaid4 compared the coarsening of steels containing 0.011 to 0.204 per cent total aluminum and found a maximum coarsening temperature at 0.098 per cent aluminum. He had no samples between 0.015 and 0.098 per cent aluminum. Houdrement6 found a marked decrease in coarsening temperature with aluminum contents above 0.50 per cent. Kinzel, Crafts and Egan6 found that aluminum and zirconium improved the low-temperature impact resistance of a low-alloy steel, while titanium was detrimental. Sims7 shows that sulphur increases the coarsening temperature and that the maximum coarsening temperature is between 0.04 and 0.06 per cent added aluminum. The fact that the coarsening temperature passes through a maximum with increasing aluminum content appears to be well established. The aluminum content that

Jan 1, 1947

By James W. Halley

"Fine-grained" steels have been standard products for many years. This paper describes an investigation of the effects of some of the more common grain-growth inhibitors used to produce these steels. The properties, response to heat-treatment, and the deoxidation practice necessary to produce "fine-grained" steels have been the subjects of numerous papers. It has been shown that a substantial quantity of aluminum is necessary to produce this type of steel, and it has been indicated that titanium and zirconium produce a similar result. For some time there was a lively argument between those who felt that aluminum refined the grain and those who felt that aluminum oxide was the effective agent. This argument subsided with an apparent victory for those promoting aluminum oxide. Most of the work on grain size has divided steels into two broad classifications based upon McQuaid and Ehn's original carburizing test at 1700°F or some similar test at this temperature. If the steel coarsened at this temperature, it was coarse grained, while if it did not it was he grained. Quantitative data concerning how much a certain amount of aluminum raised the coarsening temperature and affected the properties, all other factors being constant, are very meager. Similar information regarding titanium and zirconium is practically nonexistent. The published information on aluminum yields some quantitative information. Epstein, Nead and Washburn' gave the first quantitative information on the amount of aluminum necessary to prevent grain growth at 1700°F. They showed that the addition of a pound to a pound and a half of aluminum per ton (0.05 to 0.075 per cent) would assure steel that would not coarsen during a McQuaid-Ehn test at 1700°F. Herty, McBride and Houghg reported that a steel containing 0.020 per cent acid-soluble aluminum coarsened between 1742° and 1832°F., while steels containing 0.016 per cent and 0.017 per cent acid-soluble aluminum coarsened between 1652° and 1742°F. compared with similar aluminum-free steels that started to coarsen at 1580°F. Herty3 also showed a marked improvebent in low-temperature notched impact resistance with increasing acid-soluble aluminum up to 0.030 per cent. McQuaid4 compared the coarsening of steels containing 0.011 to 0.204 per cent total aluminum and found a maximum coarsening temperature at 0.098 per cent aluminum. He had no samples between 0.015 and 0.098 per cent aluminum. Houdrement6 found a marked decrease in coarsening temperature with aluminum contents above 0.50 per cent. Kinzel, Crafts and Egan6 found that aluminum and zirconium improved the low-temperature impact resistance of a low-alloy steel, while titanium was detrimental. Sims7 shows that sulphur increases the coarsening temperature and that the maximum coarsening temperature is between 0.04 and 0.06 per cent added aluminum. The fact that the coarsening temperature passes through a maximum with increasing aluminum content appears to be well established. The aluminum content that

Jan 1, 1947

By Claude P. Heiner

mountain region to M tht Coast points for domestic consumption and for export are shown in Table 11. There is considerable disparity in rates from both Rock Springs, Wyo., and Castle Gate, Utah, to the four coast cities where the slack coal is to be used for purposes other than export. The rate on coal to be exported is the same from either starting point to any of the four coast cities even though there is a difference of as much as 341 miles in the shipping distance. It is interesting to note that the freight rate between Sunnyside, Utah, and Fontana, Calif., on coking coal is $5.05 per ton and that coal up to 8 in. can be moved on this rate if it is suitable for coking. This rate was published late in 1942 on a contemplated annual movement of more than 500,000 tons. There have been decreases in freight rates since 1923 on movements of slack coal from Utah into Seattle and Portland due to pressure on the railroads and to greater. quantity of coal shipped. It is the author,', opinion that a movement of slack coal in excess of 3 million tons of coal per year from Utah to any point in central California would justify a freight rate equal to that puhlished for Fontana, Calif.. or $5.05 per ton. The movement of 3 1/2 million tons of coal per year on the basis of 240 mine working days per year would require that 14,600 tons be handled each mine working day. If it is assumed that shipments could be arranged for a 6-day week, the average railway movement would he 11,200 tons, or approximately 3 trains containing fifty-five 70-ton coal cars per day. Such movements of coal would require railroad equipment represented by the investment amounts stated in Table 12 and entail the services of 250 men. Table 12 ... Railroad Equipment and Investment Required To Move 11,200 Tons of Coal a Day from Utah to California Railroad Equipment Cost 2800. 70-ton coal cara at $6.000 each $16,800.000 32 locomotives at $310.000 each. 9.920.000 Miscellaneous eauiument:.......... .5;000:000 Total........................ $31,720,000 It therefore appears that, under presently known mining methods, the lowest price at which coal could be sold f.0.b. the mine in amounts of 3 1/2 million tons per year for generation of power in central California would be $4.60. It also appears that the lowest freight rate that could be expecled between intermountain points and the central California area would be $5.05 per ton, making a total cost of coal delivered at a plant site of $9.65 per ton. Conelusions The following are the author's conclusions: 1. Coal mines in Utah and in the Kemmerer and Rock Springs districts of Wyoming could increase annual production by 6 1/2 million tons per year. 2. Under present conditions coal could probably be delivered to any steam electric plant in central California at a price not to exceed $9.65 per ton. 3. The use of coal at such a price, while higher than the equivalent present price of fuel oil, is entirely feasible. 4. There are adequate railroad facilities for movements of large quantities of coal from the intermountain region to the Rest Coast. 5. In a national emergency it probably would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain sufficient oil to meet requirements of the greatly expanded West Coast steam electric generatsing capacity. 6. The intermountain region contains ample coal reserves to supply all conceivable demands for West Coast power generation for a number of generations. 7. Increasing demands of labor threaten to lessen, if not eliminate, savings in cost of coal production through the use of new mining machinery. 8. Continuation of experiments in socialism by the Federal Government through construction of hydroelectric generating plants, particularly those unrelated to land-use reclamation, defies justification. Rates under this concept of a governmental function are subsidized through greater taxation of its people. Private capital is available to construct steam plants, or hydro plants where feasible, and should be permitted to continue in order to preserve the principles of our free enterprise system. DISCUSSION (L. C. McCabe and Robert P. Koenig, presiding) C. C;. BALl*—I was asked to lead off the discussion, but it is not with the thought that I might be able to add anything to the paper. The thoroughness with which it was prepared rather forestalls the asking of many questions. Your treatment, Mr. Heiner, is a very valuable contribution. I do want to suggest—that although you have limited your study to this specific question, with certain geographic limitations, many of the things in your paper apply just as well to the eastern coals. I want to agree 100 pct with your final conclusion concerning government-subsidized construction. Id. C. McCabe*—It is certainly worthwhile to take stock occasionally to see where we are going in problems of this nature. I agree with Mr. Heiner that ultimately the only reliable source of fuel that the West Coast has is coal hut the time factor is the difficult element to evaluate. Just before I came here I discussed this subject with N. B. Hinson, Vice President and Executixe Engineer of the Southern California Edison Company, and Chairman of the West Coast Inter-Power Exchange Committee. He has given much thought to utilities' fuel supply and it was very helpful to me in preparing a discussion of the paper to talk with him beforehand. Stock taking and forecasting of future development are essential to the continuing success of any enterprise. Mr. Heiner has called attention to the unprecedented growth of central and southern California and to the increased demands for fuel and power which have accompanied it. He discusses the increased fuel oil and natural gas requirements and the probable limits on the future use of these fuels and of hydroelectric power. In contrast to the calculable limits of these sources of electric energy, the author points to the availability of enormous reserves of coal in the Rocky Mountain States adjacent to the Pacific Coast which can be utilized for power generation. That there will be increased use of coal for power generation in the area under discussion is generally accepted hut it is in the timetable of such development that there is not complete agreement. In a recent report, Mr. Hinson reviewed the future power outlook for the Pacific southwest area. He pointed out that the use of steam plants in connection with water power plants in this region has made the maximum use of hydroelectric energy possible, and that the correct balance between hydro and steam generating plants produces the most economical overall system. Steam plants in the area which had been installed to protect against deficiency in hydro energy in dry years were used to carry war loads. Fortunately, no dry

Jan 1, 1950

By Cloyd M. Smith

B. F. TiLLson*— The manifold difficulties of accurate anemometry in irregular sections of mine passageways, the irregular distributions of velocities in cross sections of the same, and the disturbing influence of the observer upon the air flow, all indicate an undesirable inaccuracy of results obtainable by any standardized method of traversing the section by an anemometer. It seems obvious that another, and simpler, method should be used to determine the volume of air flow in mine passages, namely: 1. At appropriate locations cement or calked framework rings should be installed permanently to equalize the irregularities of sectional contour and provide a place and means of attachment for a temporary cloth brattice which bears a rigid orifice. 2. The measurement of the velocity of air flow through the orifice may then be by anemometer or, preferably, by Pitot tube measurements of the differential pressures on both sides of the orifice in accordance with the standard practices available in engineering 1iterature. † The constants may be determined for various measuring positions in relation to the resulting "vena contracta." 3. The position of the person who makes the measurements is behind the brattice out of the air stream. The Pitot tube does not offer as disturbing an obstruction as the anemometer. A recording gauge may be employed to integrate fluctuations in air flow through that portion of the mine. No traverses are required because the reading may be at a single central point. An anemometer can be used with an orifice flow. The orifice will increase the air velocity at the measuring point, with correspondingly more accurate measurements where the normal air velocity through the passageway is low. Portable brattices might be devised with the cushioning rims which would seal against irregular rock surfaces where permanent rings were not available or feasible. The development by the Ventilation Committee of standard procedures and devices for the orifice measurement of the flow of mine ventilating air might be a desirable project for this coming year. C. M. Smith (author's reply)—Thank you for your discussion of my paper on underground anemometry. Your suggested method of measuring underground air flow is a novel one which might be applicable in some situations. It should be tested along with other suggested methods in any investigation of this subject. G. E. McElroy*—In spite of the adverse publicity that vane-anemometer methods of air measurement have had in the past and that contributed by the present paper, I endorse Mr. Erickovic's statement that anemometer traversing "has proved to be widely applicable, expeditious and simple" and add that available methods are accurate enough for the purposes for which they may be used. The fact that the great majority of minor mine officials assess relative changes in rates of air flow by comparison of crude vane-anemometer measurements, known to average 20 to 30 pct high, has no important bearing on this subject, because state inspection standards were based originally on such methods of air measurement. Federal inspection standards are based on actual rates of flow as determined by traversing, and interest in traversing methods is rapidly increasing. In considering traversing methods, three aspects are of major importance: (1) the absolute accuracy of calibrations; (2) the degree of interference with normal flow conditions introduced by traversing methods designed for accurate measurement by shaft-mounted instruments; and (3) the proper "method" factor to use for approximate measurements by hand-held instruments. With respect to absolute accuracy of calibrations, we have always placed reliance on calibrations made by the National Bureau of Standards, with which manufacturers' calibrations have usually agreed very closely. It is therefore particularly disturbing to find7 that calibrations made previous to June 1947 are presumably about 5 pct in error because of excessive registry caused by the thin flat plates on which anemometers were mounted for calibration. Velocities corrected for calibration have therefore averaged about 5 pct low in all probability. In this connection, it is interesting to note that an anemometer calibrated against Pitot-tube measurement by a single-point method in the Bureau of Mines experimental coal nine in 1923 indicated this same difference of about 5 pct and that the same instrument calibrated by a traversing method in a metal mine some months later indicated a difference in the same direction of about 4 pct. These results are reported by the Bureau of Mines.8 Regarding the degree of interference, or changes in velocity distribution, caused by the position of the observer's body in traversing operations, misconceptions seem to be especially prevalent, resulting in increasing advocacy of methods, such as the "clear section" method outlined in this paper, that cause just the type of interferences that they are designed to avoid. The degree of interference for any method may be gauged easily by a few experiments with a velocity-pressure gauge connected to a Pitot tube or with an indicating velocity meter such as the Velometer. In an experiment cited by McElroy and Richardson,# a decrease of 5 pct was noted at ten widths upstream from a 6-in. plank, whereas an observer's body at about the maximum practical distance of 6 ft downstream from the instrument is only about four widths away. In the Bureau of Standards paper previously mentioned, it is recommended that supports used in calibrations be at least 16 widths downstream. In practice, therefore, a downstream position of the observer is ruled out as far as accurate measurement is concerned. Operation of the anemometer by rigid shaft support from a point outside the section is seldom practicable; however, accurate results can be obtained, with the anemometer rigidly attached to a short shaft and held at arm's length, by an observer advancing across the traversed section while he faces the opposite wall and stands sideways to the current, provided that he keeps the instrument at least 3 ft away from his body at all times and traverses the entire section with it. If the traverse can be started with the observer in a side recess, the entire section can be covered in one operation. Normally, it would be covered in two half-sections. The presence of the observer's body does not, as is commonly supposed, increase the average velocity throughout the remaining part of the section. Rather, the velocities 1 to 2 ft on either side of his body are increased, but the distribution of velocities throughout the rest of the cross section remains normal, and a traverse made as stated gives a true average velocity for normal-flow conditions. Regarding the proper "method" factor for accounting for interference in the approximate methods of traversing with hand-held instruments, here again confusion prevails, for which the writer must assume some of the blame. Comparison of consecutive traverses made by shaft-held and hand-held 4-in. anemometers in field work after the tests reported by McElroy and Richardson' gave method factors

Jan 1, 1950

By T. F. McCormick

THIS year, 1950, is the golden anniversary of the construction and operation in this country of a tube mill for the sole purpose of fabricating aluminum alloy tubing. For a short period prior to the beginning of this mill, aluminum alloy tubing was obtained from foreign sources or produced in mills fabricating other metals. Indeed, it was a very short period because aluminum itself was a newcomer in the field of metals. The first sheet rolling mill had been in operation just eight years and a rod rolling mill for the production of wire and cable had been functioning one year. The first tube mill for aluminum was built by the Aluminum Co. of America in May 1900 and started production with four draw benches and five men, including the mill superintendent. The building itself was a lean-to attached to a sheet-rolling mill at New Kensington, Pa. The cost of equipment, including the draw benches, dies, mandrels, and other tools, was about $5000. This figure seems absurd in the present day but nevertheless it was questioned at that time whether or not such a large sum should be spent to embark on a new and uncertain venture. The initial production system for the new mill consisted of casting round hollow ingots in a tilting-type iron mold, reducing the ingots to bloom size outside the plant, and finally drawing to size on the draw benches. This method of producing aluminum alloy tubing survived just two years, as blooms of satisfactory quality were not obtained consistently. It was superseded by the cupping method in which a 24-in. diam circle cut from a rolled plate was formed into a tube bloom using first a small cupping press and then a push bench. It was stated that tubing so produced was limited to a maximum diameter of 2 3/4 in. and to wall thicknesses varying from 12 to 24 gage. However, for the first time all the operations were performed at one plant and the result was a quality product. Later larger cupping presses and push benches were obtained and the method continued to be the principal one for aluminum alloy tubing for almost a quarter of a century. During the interim the use of a Alan Mannesmann -type billet piercer was explored and it was used to some extent, but failed to produce consistently a smooth inside surface suitable for drawing with aluminum alloys. Experiments started during the latter stages of World War I in the production of tube blooms with a hydraulic extrusion press, led to the use of this type of equipment to make tube blooms for further drawing during a change-over period extending from 1925 until 1930. At this time the cupping method was discarded completely. From these humble beginnings, the aluminum alloy tubing business expanded until well over six million pounds were produced in a single month in the United States during World War II. The major portion of this production was in strong alloys which did not appear in the tubing picture until 1022, when 17S alloy tubing was introduced for aircraft construction.

Jan 1, 1951

By George A. Roberts

The development of an alloy system, high-speed steel, is used as an example of the progress of physical metallurgy. Tracing the history of men and their thoughts as they studied and invented and modified these materials, the story of high-speed steel since the 1890's is seen to be a long, slow, but steady progression of achievements. Today's multiplicity of high-speed steels are the result. Data are presented on quantitative metallography of carbides in high-speed steel with high vanadium content using the QTM instrument. Grindability as well as mechanical properties are related to the content of excess MC and M6C carbides in a series of high-speed steels and the newer matrix steels. These emphasize the present state of knowledge and show the current stages of thought that may affect the development in succeeding years. It is a great thrill for me, an ex-research metallurgist and ex-practicing metallurgical engineer, to speak to an audience currently engaged in both pursuits on the occasion of the 43rd Howe Memorial Lecture before the Iron and Steel Division of the AIME. I shall not review Henry Marion Howe's distinguished career, so adequately reviewed in Maxwell Gensamer's contribution in the 1965 AIME History of Metallurgy, except to point out that, while leading the life of an intellectual, he worked as a practicing research metallurgist and a practicing metallurgical engineer for significant periods of time and contributed greatly in both areas. For those of you who believe, as I do, that in the intellectual activity of metallurgy we are blessed with an intimate mixture of science and engineering (see Mehl's 1960 Howe Lecture), we might recall that Howe, while pursuing a life of writing and teaching in later years, served as the first Chairman of the Division of Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences. That metallurgists were called upon then to lead an engineering recognition movement is perhaps related to the strong part played by the AIME and its members in the recent establishment of a National Academy of Engineering and to the fact that a metallurgist is its head, 47 years after Howe served. I stress these engineering aspects for I wish to talk about a metallurgical engineering subject today. Alloy systems, physical metallurgy, and steel blended with an historical perspective and a report on new techniques to improve the old will, I trust, be of sufficient interest to bring these lectures back to the physical-metallurgy banner from which they have departed for 4 years. Those process metallurgists, open-hearth fiends, and physical chemists among you will just have to be patient. The development of an alloy system is the engineering application of scientific thought and fact. There are many interesting alloy systems, developed to a high degree of technology and sophistication over the past 40 to 70 years. These systems are bound together and related by a similar set of characteristics. For example, stainless steels are a system in which the members are related by a high chromium content which gives a corrosion-resistant characteristic. A subfamily in this system would be austenitic steels

Jan 1, 1967