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Jan 1, 1936

I-institute of Metals Division S. SKOWRONSKI, Chairman ZAY JEFFRIES, Vice-chairman WILLIAM M CORSE, Secretary Executive Committee J. R. FREEMAN, JR, Local Section G E JOHNSON R S ARCHER, Non-ferrous Data Sheets P. D. MERICA EDGAR C BAIN, Journal Committee L W SPRING SAM TOUR, Papers Committee F. L. WOLI H. C. JENNISON, Membership Committee Local Section Committee J. R. FREEMAN, JR., Chairman R. J. ANDERSON, Cincinnati R L. DOWDELL. Minneapolis R. S WILLIAMS, BostoI G. H. CLAMER, Philadelphia W. A SCHEUCH, Chicago R. F. WOOD, New York

Jan 1, 1923

By A. M. Gaudin

UNTIL recently little attention has been paid to the effect of particle size on flotation. This has been especially true of material finer than 200 mesh.1 Particles of different sizes must behave differently in a flotation circuit; increased information along this line would be of practical use as well as of theoretical interest. The object of this study has been to determine what effect particle size has on floatability. The problem has been approached in two ways. One method consisted in a study of samples of the final products of several mills. These samples were sized and each size-product was analyzed for its important constituents. Bakelite briquettes2 of some of the products were made and studied under the microscope. This investigation is being continued, with particular reference to quantitative microscopic analysis of intermediate products of flotation plants. M In the other method of study, mixtures of pure minerals were ground to different degrees of fineness and floated. The products were then sized and analyzed. A study of the behavior of mixtures of pure sized minerals would have been illuminating, but after trial it was considered impractical on account of the tediousness of the large amount of elutriation required and the fact that the mineral particles would oxidize while being sized, preparatory to flotation. Broadly speaking, the following conclusions have been reached: 1. Results obtained by the two methods of study are in agreement. 2. The usual notion about the relative ease of flotation of very fine particles does not agree with the facts: 3. There is a time sequence of flotation with regard to particle size, the medium coarse particles floating first. 4. No successful method of floating extremely fine pulps has been found. 5. Recovery is optimum in a certain well-defined size range. 6. Selection is optimum in another well-defined size range.

Jan 1, 1931

By John C. Shyne, Eric R. Morgan

BORON as a hardenability agent of commercial importance has been the subject of extensive study in recent years. It has been suggested in the past that boron increases hardenability by combining with nitrogen, thus rendering it innocuous.&apos; More recently it has been proposed that boron increases hardenability by reducing the free energy of sites of ferrite and pearlite nucleation.&apos; The segregation of boron to grain boundaries, the primary site of nucleation, would account for the large hardenability effect of minute additions of boron in steel. This grain boundary theory has found general acceptance while the concept of boron as a nitrogen scavenger has been disregarded. However, the interaction of boron and nitrogen in steel is considered to be important to hardenability because boron may be made ineffective by combination with nitrogen.". * The present work was undertaken to examine some of the effects of boron and nitrogen arid their interaction in steel. A base composition of moderate hardenability was chosen. This was a 0.35 pct C steel containing 2.50 pct Ni and 0.30 Mo. This composition was used because it contained no strong carbide, nitride, or Table I. Composition of Steels by Analysis, Wt Pct Steel C Ni Mo 0&apos; B N* Base 0.35 2.50 0.30 0.0012 nil <0.0001 Boron 0.35 2.50 0.32 0.0012 0.0022 <0.0001 Nitrogen 0.33 2.60 0.35 0.0015 nll 0.0052 Boron plus nitrogen 0.35 2.48 0.30 0.0006 0.0020 0.0040 * Obtained by vacuum fusion technique. boride-forming elements. The other alloys examined were modifications of the base composition and contained nitrogen, boron, or nitrogen plus boron. The compositions of the four alloys used are listed in Table I. The alloys were vacuum melted from electrolytic iron, electrolytic nickel, ferromolybdenum, and fer-roboron. When required, nitrogen was added by admitting a partial pressure of nitrogen over the melt after vacuum melting. The alloys were cast into 21h-in. diam ingots and hot rolled to %-in. sq bars. No ingot pattern was discernible on the polished and etched cross sections of the hot-rolled bars. The alloys were normalized at 1650°F, then machined into standard %-in. diam end-quench hardenability test bars. Four different austenitizing treatments were used: 60 rnin at 1550°F, 45 rnin at 1800°F, 30 rnin at 2000°F, and 20 rnin at 2000°F followed immediately by 30 rnin at 1550°F. The 1550" and 2000°F treatments were carried out in duplicate for each of the four steels. In order to prevent surface oxidation the bars were austenitized while buried under charcoal in an atmosphere of argon. After quenching the bars in a conventional end-quench fixture, the hardness surveys were made in the usual fashion on parallel flats ground along opposite sides of each bar. These were ground 0.050 in. deep rather than the conventional 0.015 in., to avoid decarburized or deboronized regions.5 The austenite grain sizes which resulted from each heat treatment were observed metallographically using Vilella&apos;s etch for martensite. The criterion used as a measure of hardenability was the distance from the quenched ends of the bars at which a hardness of RC 35 was observed. This hardness represented the inflection point on the hardness vs distance plot. Fig. 1 shows the hardenability of each steel after the several heat treatments. The duplicate tests demonstrated excellent reproducibility; the distance to Rc 35 was reproduced within 1/16 in. for duplicate test bars. All four alloys had the same grain-coarsening characteristics. Neither boron nor nitrogen had any observable effect on grain size. The grain sizes resulting from the various austenitizing treatments were ASTM 7 at 1550°F, ASTM 4 at 1800°F, and ASTM 2 at 2000°F. The small amount of boron in the boron steel greatly enhanced hardenability when the samples were austenitized at 1550°F. The low hardenability of the boron plus nitrogen steel showed that nitrogen eliminated the boron contribution to hardenability. Both steels containing nitrogen, with and without boron, exhibited lower hardenability than the base composition when quenched from 1550°F.

Jan 1, 1958

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period of Septa 10, 1917, to Oct. 10, 1917. ALDER, ALFRED 1020 Kansas City St., Rapid City, So. Dakota. AUBEL, VERNE WALLACE, Night Supt. of Works, Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Ltd., Newcastle, N. S. W., Aust. BAKER, ROBERT EARL Works Mgr., Keokuk Electro-Metals Co., Keokuk, Iowa. BALLAMY, JOHN H., Min. Engr., Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad Co,Scranton, Pa. BRADLEY, ALLEN PALMER, Met., American Smelting & Refining Co., Murray, Utah. BRIGGS, WALTER M Pres. Regal Mines Co. Dedham, Mass. BRONSON, EDMOND B., Pres., Bagdad Copper Co., 120 Broadway, New York, N. Y. BROOK, NILES WINFIELD, District. Mgr., Cleveland Min. Co., 625 Bank & Insurance Bldg., Dubuque, BUSKETT, EVANS 1V., Assayer, Custom Assay Office, 620 Joplin St., Joplin, Mo. CAMPBELL, JOHN HATES, Chem. Engr., Robert W. Hunt. & Co., 2200 Insurance Exchange, Chicago, Ill.

Jan 11, 1917

[Arizona BRENT N. RICHARD, Chairman ROBERT W. HUGHES, Vice-Chairman ROBERT E. S. HEINEMAN, Secretary-Treasurer Arizona Bureau of Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. THOMAS G. CHAPMAN A. MENDELSOHN WILLIAM KOERNER A. C. REIFSNIDRR C. R_ . KUZELL WILLIAM M. SABEN ERNEST WITTENAU Black Hills NATHANIEL HERZ, Chairman C. E. DAWSON, First Vice-Chairman BANCROFT GORE, Second Vice-Chairman C. E. SCHMIDT, Secretary-Treasurer Homestake Mining Co., Lead, S. D. R. S. BLITZ NATHANIEL HERZ C. E. DAWSON A. I. JOHNSON L. B. EAMES F. C. LINCOLN BANCROFT GORE C. E. SCHMIDT]

Jan 1, 1940

New Products Equipment

Jan 11, 1950

By Charles Barrett

SINCE 1925, when the preferred orientations in compressed aluminum were first determined1, 2 the orientations have been described as a fiber texture in which a face diagonal, [110], of the face-centered cubic lattice is parallel to the compression axis. Subsequent experiments have seemed to confirm this texture,3-5 and a number of theories (recently summarized in references 6 and 7) have been proposed to explain it and to relate it to the behavior of single crystals during compression. 3,8-11 The experiments reported in this paper prove that the orientations are not adequately described as quoted above-i.e., as a [110] fiber texture-although this is a first approximation to the actual texture. They also show that the texture cannot be thought of as a stable orienta-tion that is reached and maintained after a sufficient amount of deforma-tion. The actual texture, when studied in detail at successive stages of compression, indicates that a hitherto unsuspected range of orientations is present, both in the polycrystalline metal as a whole and in various individual grains in its interior, and that a state of dynamic equilibrium exists within this range. The reasons for the failure of previous theories to predict the actual texture become obvious when the heterogeneous nature of the flow is considered. In addition to the deformation texture, the manner of its develop-ment, and its theory, this paper presents data on the following related subjects: the identity of strain markings in aluminum; the orientation changes in aluminum single crystals during compression and a com-parison of these with the conditions in individual grains of a polycrystal-line specimen; the origin of asterism in deformed single crystals, which heretofore has been regarded as a distortion localized at the surfaces of slip planes; and the relation of plastic strain in individual grains in an aggregate to the strain of the whole.

Jan 1, 1939

By S. Mukai, Y. Shah, T. Zshikawa, T. Wakamtsu

In order to recover coal concentrate of low ash and low iron content, the electrostatic separation of coal was studied. It is more successful in the corona discharge field to recover the coal concentrate of low ash and low iron content than in the field without corona discharge. The effect of humidity on the electrostatic separation of coal was then studied. From the experimental results, it was clear that the electrostatic separation was excellent in about 60% relative humidity of atmosphere. Thus, the separation of vitrite from coal is practicable by electrostatic separation. In recent years the demand for high quality coal containing low ash, low iron, and low sulfur has increased. To fulfill this requirement, a higher grade coal concentrate must be produced. Study on the electrostatic separation of coal has been performed for several years in the author&apos;s laboratory. From the results of this research, it was considered that the behavior of coal particles in the electrostatic field relates closely to the ash and iron content in coal. In the present paper, the electrostatic separation of coal in corona discharge field was studied in order to recover the high quality coal concentrate and then the effect of humidity on the electrostatic separation was investigated. PREPARATION OF COAL SAMPLES The coals from the Akabira mine, the Kushiro mine, the Miike mine, and the Oshima mine which are famous coal mines in Japan were used in this study. The ash contents of these coals are shown in Table I. From the results of the analysis of the coal samples by the Norelco X-ray diffractometer, it is recognized that the Miike coal includes mainly pyrite, quartz, kaoline, calcite, and epidote; the Kushiro coal: kaoline, quartz, and montmorillonite, and the Oshima coal: siderite, dolomite, and other substances. For the preparation of samples, the coarse pieces of coal were crushed to about 2 mm in diam and then ground in an agator mortar. The ground products were sieved and fractions of 10 — 14 mesh, 14 — 20 mesh, 20-28 mesh, and 28-35 mesh were prepared, respectively. APPARATUS OF ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATION The principal part of the apparatus of the electrostatic separation used in the experiments is shown in Fig. 1. In order to generate the corona discharge field, a needle-shaped electrode combined with a pole electrode is installed as the high tension electrode. In the case of investigating the effects of the humidity on the electrostatic separation of coal, the needle-shaped electrode was combined with a plate electrode instead of the pole electrode as shown in Fig. 2. The pole or the plate electrode was installed to promote the repelling of the charged particles by producing the electrostatic field between this electrode and the grounded roller. It seems to be very useful on the coal separation to install these combined high tension electrodes. SEPARATION OF COAL PARTICLES IN CORONA DISCHARGE FIELD The separation testings on the coal samples in the corona discharge field were performed by the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1. These experiments were carried out under the following conditions: feed size 20 — 28 mesh, room temperature, normal humidity and applied voltage 15-20 KV, and the combined electrodes including the needle-shaped electrode were negatively charged. The results of these testings are

Jan 1, 1968

By D. F. Stoneburner, G. Derge, Ling Yang

PREVIOUS investigations in this laboratory have shown the existence of electronic conduction in several molten metal sulfides and the specific conductance of a number of these has been measured as a function of temperature.&apos; In order to better understand the electronic nature of these melts, the thermoelectric power of a molten FeS-solid tungsten thermocouple was measured and a value of approximately 55 µv per "C was obtained in the temperature range from 1200" to 1400c2 These studies have been continued and the thermoelectric power of several other molten metal sulfide-solid tungsten thermocouples have been obtained. The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. A Kanthal furnace was used, doubly wound to prevent any undesirable effects of an external field. A 1/2-in. McDanel tube was fitted with two vertical 5/8-in. McDanel tubes as shown. These tubes were about 2 in. apart. A graphite boat was used to hold a re-crystallized alumina boat in which the prefused sulfide was placed. Two probes were made using

Jan 1, 1960

By A. S. Hewitt

After an interval of fourteen years, saddened for all of us by the death of David Thomas, the father of the anthracite iron-trade, first president of the Institute, and by the untimely loss of his successor, Alexander L. Holley, whose memory we are about to honor by loving services, the members of the American Institute of Mining Engineers have conferred upon me for the second time the office of president, under circumstances similar to those which led to the choice in 1876. Then the whole world was represented at the great exposition of industry which was held in Philadelphia to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of our declaration of political independence. In 1890 it is our privilege to receive as guests the members of the British Iron and Steel Institute, who, with singular and graceful felicity, have appointed a meeting in the United States in the year when we pass from the second to the first place in the international column of the production of iron, and thus celebrate our industrial independence. For the honor of being chosen to extend to our distinguished guests the right hand of fellowship and a hearty welcome I return to my associates the grateful acknowledgment of one whose chief claim to your favor is to be found in his love for the professional occupation in which we are all engaged, and in his efforts, public and private, to promote its advancement into new fields of usefulness. In order to indicate the full significance of the visit of our foreign guests at this time, it will be proper to explain briefly the origin, aims and work of the Iron and Steel Institute. It unquestionably owes its birth to the International Expositions held in London in 1851 and 1862, and in Paris in 1867. These expositions served to break down the jealousies of nationality and to diffuse a better knowledge of industrial processes. Trade-secrets, which had been carefully guarded, became common property; manufacturers who had previously regarded themselves as rivals formed bonds of union and ties of friendship, as the results of an intercourse which

Jan 1, 1891

By D. J. McAdam, R. W. Mebs

The technical cohesive strength of a metal means, not the interatomic forces, but the technically estimated resistance to fracture. An example of such resistance to fracture is the so-called "true" breaking stress of a tension-test specimen, the breaking load divided by the sectional area at fracture. According to the prevalent view,8 the technical cohesive strength of a metal. in any particular state as regards prior mecharlical treatment and heat-treatment, is determined by a limiting value of the algebraically greatest principal stress. In two previous papers by one of the authors, evidence was presented to indicate that the technical cohesive strength of a metal cannot be represented by a single stress value, but that it comprises an infinite number of values corresponding to the infinite number of possible combinations of the principal stresses. The technical cohesive strength thus comprises an infinite number of technical cohesion Limits, each representing a specific stress combination at fracture. In the same papers, evidence was presented that plastic extension causes a continuous increase in the technical cohesive strength. Such a variation is not in accordance with the prevalent view that plastic extension first increases, then decreases, the technical cohesive strength.&apos; In this paper, as in the previous papers,14.15 the algebraically greatest principal stress will be designated S1, the least principal stress will be designated 33, and the intermediate principal stress will be designated S². The technical cohesion limit under polarsymmetric tension (S1 = S2 = S3) will be termed the "disruptive stress," and the cohesion limit under unidirectional tension (S2 and S3 = o) will be termed the "severing stress."l4, .l5 The yield strength of a metal, according to the generally accepted theory, may be represented by a constant value of the shearing-strain energy, and hence by a constant value of the sum of the squares of the three principal stress differences. In the second of the previous papers,15 however, evidence was presented that the limiting yield stress decreases with increase in the volume stress, the algebraic average Of the three principal stresses.* This in fluence of the volume stress becomes prominent only in the field of triaxial tension. In the two previous papers,".&apos;5 diagrams were presented to show the variation of the technical cohesion limit, yield stress, and ultimate stress with the combination of principal stresses and with plastic extension. Those diagrams and the resultant • Any stress system ma? be resolved into a polarsymmetric stress causing pure volume strain and a combination of pure shearing stresses. which cause no change of volum

Jan 1, 1945

By L. E. Young

The progress of mineral industry education will be limited to the period prior to World War II and will be considered as primarily a division of engineering education. Its relation to progress in the mineral industry and to the activities of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers will be emphasized. The history of mineral industry education has been recorded most completely and authoritatively by Dr. T. T. Read in his recent volume in the Seeley W. Mudd Series of American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers publications, entitled, The Development of Mineral Industry Education in the United States. Therefore, most of the historical details will be omitted from the discussion and an effort will be made to point out significant developments and to analyze trends. Introductory Statement and Significant Points in Progress Among the significant points in the development of mineral industry education in the United States since 1871, the following deserve particular mention: 1. The number of institutions offering undergraduate instruction has increased, particularly during the years 1890 to 1925; the number of students enrolled in undergraduate study has increased greatly, largely on account of the development of courses in petroleum engineering and increasing interest in metallurgy. 2. The selection of students to be admitted to undergraduate courses has been improved through the advisement, counseling, and guidance programs sponsored by the Engineers&apos; Council for Professional Development. 3. Improved instruction methods all the training of the teaching staff have been promoted by the educational institutions themselves, but with the most effective stimulus and guidance of the American Society for Engineering Education and the Engineers&apos; Council for Professional Development. 4. The accrediting of undergraduate curricula through the Engineers&apos; Council for Professional Development, consitlering both qualitative and quantitative criteria, has done much to improve standards of instruction in engineering education for thc mineral industry. 5. Undergraduate curricula and courses are revised currently to meet the needs of the American mineral industry. New curricula are developed currently to permit specialization in technical fields, particularly in the fourth year of undergraduate work. 6. There has been a strengthening of the fundamental courses in mathematics, physics, mechanics, and chemistry, and at the same time these courses are being adapted to the most recent developments in the industry, including metallurgy, geophysics. petroleum engineering, petroleum technology, ceramics and SO forth. 7&apos; There has been continuing improvement in plant and laboratory facilities of the educational institutions.

Jan 1, 1949

Page Fundamental Principles Involved in Segregation in Alloy Castings. By R. M. Brick. (With discussion)............................* Review of Factors Underlying Segregation in Steel Ingots. By B. M. LarseX.. (With discussion)............................. 4x4 Introduction to the Session on Segregation in Steel. By Earle C. Smith......436 Relation of Open-hearth Practice to Segregation in Rimmed Steel. By J. W. HaLley and G. L. Plimpton, Jr. (With discussion)................438 Segregation in a Large Alloy-steel Ingot. By S. W. Poole and J. .4. Rosa. (With discussion) .............................459

Jan 1, 1945

by their overdogmatic picture of geology and their resulting drastic oversimplification and idealization of geologic features. I am in hearty disagreement with the recommendation that geophysics should be done by cooperative work between a geologist and a geophysi-cist. That arrangement would be comparable to doing petrography by having a physicist at the microscope and a geologist sitting by his side. The interpretation of the geological significance of geophysical data can be done efficiently only by a physicist who has become also a good geologist or by a geologist who is also a good geophysicist. Less Well-trained Men The rank and file, composing perhaps two-thirds of the personnel of exploratory geophysics, is not, and should not be, composed of highly trained men. The routine, stereotyped character of the work and the impossibility of promotion of more than a few from these lower ranks even under the best circumstances justify companies in filling the bulk of these rank and file positions with men having only a bachelor&apos;s degree at the most. There can be a wide range of training for such positions, although certain lines of study are preferred for certain kinds of work, and different employers have different preferences. For work in gravitational and magnetic prospecting, first preference will be for men having geological training and second for men with civil engineering training. In seismic work, men with geological training are preferred by some employers for computers; physicists, electrical engineers and all whose technical education has covered radio circuits are preferred for the other technical positions. Collegiate training in geophysical prospecting brings no preference and by many employers is given a slightly inferior rating. One large company seldom hires men who have just graduated with a major in geophysical prospecting. This prejudice is based on the reasoning that much of what is learned in college is obsolete or obsolescent, that most of the techniques learned in college will have to be unlearned, because different from those used by the employing company, and that in the long run additional courses in basic physics, mathematics and geology are of more value to a man than the courses on geophysical prospecting. DISCUSSION [This discussion refers to the five papers beginning on page 23 and ending on page 74.1 L. W. Blau,* Houston, Texas.—I have had some rather sad experiences with forecasting. For example, I could not foresee 10 years ago my present occupation, and I do not profess to be able to look ahead 10 years and tell anyone what he will be doing then. Referring to the point raised in the discussion, I do not know, for example, what the price of oil will be 10 years from now. If an appreciable number of

Jan 1, 1940

by their overdogmatic picture of geology and their resulting drastic oversimplification and idealization of geologic features. I am in hearty disagreement with the recommendation that geophysics should be done by cooperative work between a geologist and a geophysi-cist. That arrangement would be comparable to doing petrography by having a physicist at the microscope and a geologist sitting by his side. The interpretation of the geological significance of geophysical data can be done efficiently only by a physicist who has become also a good geologist or by a geologist who is also a good geophysicist. Less Well-trained Men The rank and file, composing perhaps two-thirds of the personnel of exploratory geophysics, is not, and should not be, composed of highly trained men. The routine, stereotyped character of the work and the impossibility of promotion of more than a few from these lower ranks even under the best circumstances justify companies in filling the bulk of these rank and file positions with men having only a bachelor&apos;s degree at the most. There can be a wide range of training for such positions, although certain lines of study are preferred for certain kinds of work, and different employers have different preferences. For work in gravitational and magnetic prospecting, first preference will be for men having geological training and second for men with civil engineering training. In seismic work, men with geological training are preferred by some employers for computers; physicists, electrical engineers and all whose technical education has covered radio circuits are preferred for the other technical positions. Collegiate training in geophysical prospecting brings no preference and by many employers is given a slightly inferior rating. One large company seldom hires men who have just graduated with a major in geophysical prospecting. This prejudice is based on the reasoning that much of what is learned in college is obsolete or obsolescent, that most of the techniques learned in college will have to be unlearned, because different from those used by the employing company, and that in the long run additional courses in basic physics, mathematics and geology are of more value to a man than the courses on geophysical prospecting. DISCUSSION [This discussion refers to the five papers beginning on page 23 and ending on page 74.1 L. W. Blau,* Houston, Texas.—I have had some rather sad experiences with forecasting. For example, I could not foresee 10 years ago my present occupation, and I do not profess to be able to look ahead 10 years and tell anyone what he will be doing then. Referring to the point raised in the discussion, I do not know, for example, what the price of oil will be 10 years from now. If an appreciable number of

Jan 1, 1940

By C. E. Sims

THE carbon-oxygen reaction without doubt is the basic reaction in steelmaking. It is important on several counts: In the first place, carbon is the element that distinguishes steel from iron. It is the principal element controlling properties, and its control is of prime concern. Although the principal objective of the carbon-oxygen reaction is to oxidize excess carbon, the accompanying boil should not be underrated. The mechanical agitation, stirring, and mixing resulting from the boil are so useful in the distribution of heat and in promoting uniformity of composition in the bath that, were it not a natural accompaniment of the carbon-oxygen reaction, it is probable that something would have to be invented to replace it. The open-hearth operation, for example,, with the bath heated from above by radiation, would be impracticable without the carbon boil. The electric-arc furnace is somewhat less dependent on it, but every melter knows how much easier it is to gain temperature with minimum damage to refractories during the boil than with a dead bath. The motor action of the induced current of the induction furnace makes the carbon boil unnecessary but even there a severe oxidation has been found useful in giving greater freedom from porosity in certain steels. The quantitative aspects of the carbon-oxygen reaction have been given considerable attention by a large number of investigators, and the principles of physical chemistry have played an important part in these studies. Physical chemistry is the science of the mechanics and mathematics of chemical reactions. It is possible to study the mechanisms of reactions in a qualitative manner without reference to mathematics and thus obtain valuable concepts as to the manner in which the wheels go around. When it is desired to express quantitative relations in these reactions, however, resort to mathematics is not only convenient but necessary. Mathematics may also be regarded as the shorthand language of physical chemistry. A basic relation whose description requires numerous words may be expressed very simply by a mathematical formula or equation. A good example of this is the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction. Expressed verbally, it is: When a chemical reaction has reached a condition of equilibrium, the product of the concentration of the reacting substances on one side of the equation, divided by the product of the concentration of the reacting substances on the other side, gives a quotient that is a constant at constant temperature. For the carbon-oxygen reaction C + 0 [=] CO this is expressed simply as [ ] where K (from the German Konstant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction. Although mathematics is such a necessary and useful tool, it is also a potential pitfall. Mathematics in itself is an abstract science, which is not inhibited by consideration of mechanisms or materials.

Jan 1, 1947

By Richard A. Sheppard

Zeolites-crystalline hydrated aluminosilicates of the alkalis and alkaline earths-are important rock-forming constituents in sedimentary rocks and are potentially valuable industrial minerals. They have a framework structure that encloses interconnected cavities occupied by the relatively large cations and water molecules. The cations, chiefly sodium, potassium, and calcium, and the water have considerable freedom of movement within the structure and give the zeolite their cation- exchange and reversible-dehydration properties. Some zeolites have essential contents of barium, strontium, or magnesium. The basic structure

Jan 1, 1975

By Ivor Hawkes

A wide variety of borehole gages have been developed for measuring rock stress. They all operate on the principle that stress changes around a borehole result in deformation that can be measured by the gage and interpreted in terms of the stress change either by calculation or calibration. In general terms, gages that comply with the borehole deformations are referred to as “deformation meters” and those that restrain the deformations by reason of their rigidity are referred to as “stress meters.” The main advantages claimed for stress meters are: their “stress” sensitivity is much less dependent on the rock modulus than that of deformation meters, and they are clamped firmly in the borehole. The use of each of the borehole gages developed for stress determinations in rock in the main has been confined to the laboratory responsible for its development. To be generally accepted a gage must meet the following specifications : 1) Gages to be left in place to measure stress changes must be relatively cheap, and if possible recoverable, so that large numbers can be used to obtain an overall picture of the changing conditions. This, of course, is not necessarily the case for recoverable gages designed for absolute rock stress measurements where usually only one or two gages are involved. 2) For use in the adverse environmental conditions encountered underground, it is essential that gages be robust, stable, and unaffected by high humidity, corrosive water, or dust. 3) Highly qualified technicians are rarely employed specifically for rock mechanics studies in mines or on civil engineering sites and there- fore gages designed for measuring stress changes must be easy to set and

Jan 1, 1972

By Benj. F. Tillson

To most mine operators, it seems evident that there is a drill-steel problem, although under certain conditions the amount of drill-steel breakage does not appear serious. What is at fault? It may be one or a combination of circumstances. The development of rock drills to the hammer-drill type in place of the old reciprocating piston drill, probably is one important cause for the greater steel breakage. Perhaps the manufacturers of drill steel have failed to realize what alloys are needed for this new service or have overlooked the changes in the art of rock drilling. Although suitable alloys are provided, they may not be SO handled in the manufacturing process as to be in the best condition to withstand the demands of rock drilling. The mine operator may be at fault in desiring to use the smallest possible drill-steel section in order that the gage of the drill bits may be correspondingly small and the amount of footage drilled per unit of labor may be greater; or the black-smithshop practice at the mines may need improvement. The miner who uses the drill steel may also require more intensive supervision and education. Again, the manufacturer of rock drills may have failed to study the types of blows the steel alloys will withstand satisfactorily and which their tools are delivering and so he may not know whether or not a different design of rock drill would equal or excel their present drilling speeds without treating the drill steel so severely. All of these hypotheses probably have their supporters. On the other hand, perhaps we are seeking too much service from drill steel and we need a fuller realization of the fatigue strains developed and should prepare to relieve these by a periodic heat treatment of the steels. However, we do not find any proof that any of these suppositions may be held responsible for the drill-steel breakage attendant to mining. The proposed investigation of this matter by the U. S. Bureau of Mines is fully warranted in the promotion of the conservation of labor and material, and the safety of the workmen. The great range of field conditions, as well as the scope of the research, requires the energetic cooperative support of many interests. Various manufacturers of steel,

Jan 1, 1922