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By Kermit Allen

Historically, major natural gas transmission companies have been faced with the problem of meeting peak demands when the source of natural gas is located hundreds of miles away from the marketing area. Transcontinental Gas Pipe Line Corp.'s position was further complicated when offshore gas supply wells were shut-in during hurricane alerts. Transco's solution to this problem was the construction of salt storage wells adjacent to their pipeline near Eminence, Miss. Storage caverns were constructed using conventional solution mining methods. Two 13 3/8-in.-diam cased wells were completed and a 1,000,000-bbl cavern was leached at an interval of 5700 to 6700 ft at the base of each well. The two caverns have a usable storage volume of 2.0 billion cu f t and each well has a deliverability rate of 375 million standard cfd. The caverns are unique in that brine is not used for product displacement-all brine has been removed from the caverns. Natural gas is stored at a maximum pressure of 4000 psia. During withdrawal the cavern pressure drops to a minimum of 1225 Asia-the volume of gas between these two pressures becomes "usuable or top gas." The Eminence storage terminal is located on the Eminence salt dome about 30 miles north of Hattiesburg, Miss. Construction began in July 1968 and was completed in October 1970.

Jan 1, 1972

By J. S. Hromatko, L. J. Gurevich

In the course of the examination, at the BureLu of Standards, of fusible tin boiler plugs for the Steamboat Inspection Service, it became evident that an investigation should be undcrtaken to determine the precautions necessary in the manufacture of acceptable plugs. The results of the tests of these plugs show that their manufacture has improved, though at present not all of the plugs tested are, satisfactory. Table 1 gives the result of tests of some 1500 plugs from about 100 makers. Records of the tests show that several of the makers were able to produce satisfactory plugs with every pouring. The Steamboat Inspection Service has the following specifications for fusible plugs: "Fusible plugs for use in boilers of steam vessels under the jurisdiction of the Steamboat Inspection Service shall be made of bronze casing with the bore tapering continuously and openly from end to end, and filled from end to end with tin not less than 99.7 per cent. pure and to contain not more than 0.1 per cent. of lead and not more than 0.1 per cent. of zinc. The small end of the bore may be countersunk not more than 1/32 in. in depth and width, but no recess, thread, or cavity other than this countersink shall be allowed." Table 1.—Thirty-"five-mdh Testing Record of Fusible Plugs Causes of Rejection Inspection Period June-November, 1916.................. 311 32.8 47.2 3.8 11.5 15. 1 10.9 1 1.9 4.5 December, 1916-May, 1917............. 318 71.4 28.6 2.2 4.4 12.8 5.9 i ... 2.8 June-November, 1917.................. 228 73.0 27.01 ... 9.6, 5.2 9.6' ... 0.8 December, 1917-May. 1918............. 214 72.028.0 0.9 0.4 11.6 7.0 ... 7.9 June-November, 1918...............250 70.7 29.3 ... 2.0 20.0 5.2 ....2.8 December, 1918-April. 1919............ 23378.121.9 7.2 1.2 1 4.7 3.0 ... 6.0 Total 35 months....................1544.69.7 30.3 2.3 4.8 11 0 6.9 0.3 4.1

Jan 1, 1921

By P. E. Phillips

INTRODUCTION Rocky Mountain Energy is the mining subsidiary of the Union Pacific Corporation, and has been active m uranium exploration since 1966. Since 1970, RME's uranium activities have been funded 50% by Mono Power, the fuels supply division of Southern California Edision. RME and Mono recognized the need for development of new methods for recovering low grade uranium deposits, and contacted Halliburton Services in regard to in situ leaching, because of Halliburton oil industry experience. As a result, a joint venture between the three parties was formed in 1974. BEAR CREEK The first ISL test was at the Bear Creek deposit in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming, about 60 miles north of Douglas. The mineralized sand is the tertiary Wasatch formation, which is an arkosic sandstone. The sand typically contains about 10% clay. The predominant clay being montmorillonite with some kaolin and illite. The roll front type trends occur along the flanks of old stream channels. This deposit was being considered for exploitation as an open pit mine. Routine amenability testing indicated it was quite amenable to a conventional acid leach, consuming about 50 lbs. of sulfuric acid per ton of ore in an agitation leach, while recovering more than 95% of the uranium. Hydrology testing indicated a permeability of about 1 darcy. The groundwater has a pH of about 8. 0 and TDS of about 1200. Test Facility The Bear Creek test was a summer-only operation, with no effort towards weather-proofing. Uranium was removed from the recovered leach solution by fixed bed ion-exchange columns. Loaded resin was eluted with strong sulfuric acid. The recovery plant was designed for simplicity of operation, with little concern for the grade or form of the yellowcake product. The plant was constructed of PVC piping and valves, fiberglass reinforced tanks, and stainless steel pumps. All waste streams were directed toward a lined evaporation pond. Wellfield The test pattern was a 30 foot radius 5 spot, with wells fully penetrating the 30 foot ore sand to a total depth of about 165 feet. The injection wells were three-inch PVC with slotted casing, while the producer was eight-inch I. D. , with a stainless steel screen. The eight-inch well was necessary in order to accommodate a six-inch stainless steel pump. Wells were cemented using cement baskets, at the top of the sand, to contain a latex acid resistant cement. Leach Conditions The lixiviant generally contained from five to seven gpl sulfuric acid, and about 0. 5 gpl hydrogen peroxide. The pH was generally 1.4 and EMF was usually -550 millivolts. Injection rates were rather variable from well to well, with a total injection rate between 12 and 25 GPM. Production rate was set at 25 GPM, since the production pump could not be throttled more than that. Approximately two pore volumes of solution were injected during the three-month test. Leach Results Injectivity was quite variable, but was generally rather poor, because of poor completion techniques. The problem stemmed from injecting before the injection wells had been completely cleaned of drilling mud. Pregnant solutions averaged about 50 ppm U308, with groundwater dilution varying from 10 to 50%, depending on the injection rate. Injectivity did decline with time, probably as a result of contamination of the well faces. A total of 1000 lbs U308 had been recovered when the test was shut down. This probably represented about 10% of the mineral under leach.

Jan 1, 1979

By B. Blumenthal

THE present investigation was planned as a survey of the lead-rich portion of the ternary lead-antimony-silver system by thermal analysis. Since, however, a rigorous application of the conventional thermal analytical method is time consuming, an attempt was made to speed up the investigation by reducing the time required for a single thermal analysis. This was done by increasing the rate of cooling to 12° to 18°C. per minute. Since such a rate does not permit even an approach to equilibrium conditions, the melt was stirred vigorously by a stirrer operating at the high rate of 665 r.p.m. This proved to be effective in obtaining cooling curves with distinct points of arrest and of excellent reproducibility, which satisfactorily compare with those obtained at a rate of 1° to 2°C. per min. with or without slow stirring (Fig. 1). By this method the lead-rich end of the lead-antimony system and a series of ternary alloys in sections parallel to the lead-antimony side of the ternary system were investigated and it was observed that the two branches of the' liquidus curve of the .binary alloys did not intersect at the eutectic temperature. An equivalent effect was observed in the ternary system. The eutectic temperature of the binary lead-antimony system was found to be 252.0°C., which confirms the recent investigation by Pellini and Rhines,1 who determined the eutectic temperature to be 251.5°C. The observation that the curves of primary crystallization of the lead-antimony system do not intersect at the eutectic temperature was previously made by Dean.2 Dean explains the phenomenon by assuming the existence of a compound Sb4Pb. He felt that super-cooling was not the cause of the phenomena because he was unable to influence them by inoculation. The X-ray investigation by Solomon and Morris-Jones,3. the metallographic investigations by Stead,4 Charpy,5 Gontermann,6 and Dean, Zickrick and Nix,7 and the numerous investigations of physical properties, definitely disprove the occurrence of any compound. The work of Dean was not confirmed by Broniewski and Sliwoski,8 whose experiments did not show any irregularity and who report a eutectic composition of 13 per cent antimony and a eutectic temperature of 250° to 252°C. at a rate of cooling of about 6°C. per min. Abel, Redlich and Adler9 then report a eutectic composition of 12.1 per cent upon reviewing the previous, publications and adding a few of their own cooling curves. In 1934 Quadrat and Jiriste10 found from careful analyses of the bottom portion of slowly cooled hypereutectic melts that the eutectic contains only 11,4 to 11.5 per cent antimony. (Previous analyses by Stead4 in 1881 gave 13 per cent:) Weaver," however, reported in 1935 that cooling curves indi-

Jan 1, 1943

By Louis Katona

The practical execution of the design for rolling-mills presented by the writer at the Paris meeting* of thc Iron and Steel Institute in 1900 involves the determination of some questions not yet discussed, among which is the determinatioir of the amount of power required to perform the rolling of pieces of iron and steel of given dimensions. It is necessary to know this factor if we would put motors of proper capacity to the respective pairs of rolls, or, rcciprocally, if, having standard motors at our disposal, we would design grooves to suit them. Moreover, this factor is involved in giving right dimensions to every part of the rolls and housings. Expert designers of engines for driving rolling-mills of the present type receive very indefinite directions, such as: that the motor is to drive a light, medium or heavy train; that it must work with fly-wheel or reversing gear; that the number of revolutions per minute should not exceed 40 or 60, and that at a given speed the power developed should be from 100 to 200 H. P., or from 1,000 to 2,500 13. P. It frequently happens, however, that an cngine of 200 H. P. is forced under the circumstances to press or develop as much as 300 H. P., while, on the other hand, the ,1,500-11. P. engine may be rolling-stock which could be worked with a maximum expenditure of 60 to 80 H. P. Of course such variatior~s as these do not permit the best adjustment of parts or the best economy of power and fuel. The design of roll-trains is even more vaguely limited. Every part of a train, from the point where it connects with the engine to the last groove in the rolls, bears evidence that there are no rules for calculating even approximately the dimensions of the main-shafts, couplings, pinions, gears, rolls, trunnions,

Jan 1, 1904

By P. M. Robinson, J. S. LI. Leach

The heats of solution oj' indiurrr, tin, lend, nrzd tellurium have been calculated from the measured heat effects when mechanical mixtres of indium and telLuium tin and tellurium, and lead and tellurium were added to liquid bismuth. The results are in good agreement xith publislzed values.s for the separate sollction of each eleltzent in bismuth. The heats oj solution of cadmium and tellurium calculated from the rneasuved heat effects on adding trechanical mixtures of these elements do not ugree zc,itl the published values jbv the separate solution of each element. It is shown that at 623°K Ile interaction between cadmium and tellurium dissolved in liquid bismuth is strong enough to led lo preciPitation of solid CdTc. The heats oj- jor-mation of CdTe at 273" nd 623°K (1)-c crilculated fi-or the measured heat ejlfecls. The calcnlaled az'erage deviation from the Kopp-l\'ez?,zunrz rule fov solid CdTe is less than 0.06 cat per g-atom- C over this lertzperalure range. Tlze importance 0.f these oDserl.ations to the determination of heals of formation hy metal solution calorimetry is considered. LIQUID metal solution calorimetry is a convenient method for determining the heats of formation of solid compounds. In this technique the heat of formation is the difference between the measured heat effects on dissolution of the compounds and of mechanical mixtures of the components in the liquid metal.' The heat of solution of the mechanical mixture may be calculated from the measured heat effect. At infinite dilution of the solutes, this heat of solution is equal to the sum of the heats of solution of the separate components. If the heat of solution of one of the components is known, the value for the other can be derived; if both are known, they may be used to check the accuracy of the calorimetric technique. The heats of formation of the tellurides of cadmium, indium, tin, and lead have recently been measured by metal solution alorimetr. The heats of solution of indium, tin, lead, and tellurium at infinite dilution in liquid bismuth at 623"K, calculated from the measured heat effects on solution of the mechanical mixtures, are in good agreement with the published values. The heats of solution of cadmium and of tellurium calculated from the measured heat effect on solution in bismuth at 623'K of mechanical mixtures of cadmium and tellurium, however, do not agree with values estimated from the literature. 1) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS The Heats of Solution of Indium, Tin, Lead, and Tellurium in Bismuth. The heat effects were measured when mechanical mixtures corresponding to the compounds In,Te, InTe, In2Te3, In2Te5, SnTe, and PbTe were dissolved in bismuth. The calorimetric procedure and the method of calculation have been described elsewhere.' The heats of solution of the mechanical mixtures were obtained by subtracting the change in heat content per gram-atom of the sample between the addition temperature (273°K) and the bath temperature (623"K), (H623°K - H273°K)S, from the measured heat effects. The calorimeter was calibrated with pure bismuth. The reported values of the measured heat effects are based on (HGoK - ^273oK)Bi = 4.96 kcal per g-atom.3 The measured heat effects are found to be linear functions of the solute concentrations of the bath in the dilute solution range. The values, extrapolated to infinite dilution, are listed in Table I, together with the heats of solution of the mechanical mixtures calculated using the published values of (H 623°K - H273°k)s for indium, tin, lead,3 and tellrium. All the error limits quoted in this work represent the spread of values obtained. The heats of solution in liquid bismuth at 623°K of mechanical mixtures of indium and tellurium in four different proportions were determined. Values of the heats of solution of the two components were then calculated from the resulting four simultaneous equations: The heats of solution at infinite dilution of tin and lead in liquid bismuth at 623°K were calculated from the heats of solution of the mechanical mixtures of tin and tellurium and of lead and tellurium using the heat of solution of tellurium calculated above. These values of the heats of solution are listed in Table I1 together with some published values for comparison.

Jan 1, 1967

By R. C. Gould, A. M. Skov, L. F. Elkins

Comparison of long term decline in oil production during cyclic waterflooding or pressure pulsing of part of the Driver Unit with steady injection-imbibition flooding in the Tex Harvey area led to large expansion of flood in the Driver Unit on the steady injection basis. While the flood has been successful, the major problem has been attainment of satisfactory oil production rates in most of the wells. Large volume fracture treatments of low capacity wells were unsuccessful in achieving sustained increases in production. A two-section area in the Driver Unit has already recovered 620 bbl of oil per acre by waterflood but other areas have not performed so well. Sun Andres water containing 300 to 500 ppm H,S is sweetened to 0.5 to 1 ppm H,S by extraction with oxygen-free flue gas. This prevents contamination of gas produced in the area and apparently it has reduced corrosion in minimum investment, thin-wall, cement-lined water dktribution systems. Cement-lined tubing in injection wells has mitigated corrosion as effectively as thick polyvinyl chloride films have, and at less cost. Introduction As reported in the literature the Spraberry field of West Texas has presented unusual problems for both primary production and waterflood ing. Earlier information from the Spraberry Driver Unit included conception and evaluation of cyclic waterflooding or pressure pulsing in a nine-section pilot test as an aid to extraction of oil from the tight matrix rock and as a boost to normal capillary imbibition forces An additional 5 years' operation in that area, and performance of expanded steady injection water-flood, now covering a total of 68 sq miles, are reported herein. In addition, since the Driver Unit is one of the largest waterfloods in areal extent in the U. S., many operating experiences are presented for the benefit of engineers concerned with operation of other Spraberry floods or with other waterfloods where this reservoir technology and/or water handling technology may be adaptable in part. These include: (1) attempts to improve producing well capacity through large volume fracture treatments, (2) long-term performance of water treating plants utilizing oxygen-free flue gas to extract H,S from sour San Andres water, (3) performance of thin-wall cement-lined pipe in water distribution systems including comparison between those sections carrying raw San Andres water and those carrying treated water, and (4) comparison of performance of various lining materials and subsurface equipment in water supply and water injection wells. These experiences are reported without regard to whether results are good, bad or indifferent. Since the operations reported are limited to the techniques, materials, and equipment actually used in the Driver Unit, no comparison is possible with results of other approaches used in other Spraberry floods or in waterfloods generally under different conditions. However, an attempt is made to quantify these experiences as much as possible in the space available to permit other engineers to select those parts applicable to eheir problems. Background The Spraberry, discovered in Feb., 1949, is a 1,000-ft section of sandstones, shales and limestones with two main oil productive members—a 10- to 15-ft sand near the top and a 10- to 15-ft sand near the base, having permeabilities of 1 md or less and porosities of 8 to 15 percent. Extensive interconnected vertical fractures permitted recovery of oil on 160-acre spacing from this fractional-millidarcy sandstone, but they made capillary end effects dominant. Primary recovery by solution gas drive is less than 10 percent of oil in place, with most wells declining to oil production of a few barrels per day when reservoir pressures are still in the range of 400 to 1,000 psi. Partial closing of the fractures with declining reservoir pressure is believed to be the cause of such low production rates at these relatively high reservoir pressures. In 1952 Brownscombe and Dyes proposed that displacement of oil by capillary imbibition of water from the fractures into the matrix rock might significantly increase oil recovery from the Spraberry, overcoming otherwise serious channelling of water through the fractures." A pilot test conducted by the Atlantic Refining Co. during 1952 through 1955 indicated technical feasibility of the process; but low oil production rates averaging I5 to 20 bbl/well/D failed to create significant interest in large-scale waterflooding at that time." Humble Oil & Refining Co. conducted a highly successful 80-acre pilot test during 1955 through 1958 with

Jan 1, 1969

By Harry M. Mikami, Harold A. Heiligman

The term chromite is often used to cover all chrome ores and concentrates which are the designations actually employed by most industrial users and producers. Chromite is, of course, the predominant mineral in chrome ores which are aggregates of chromite and gangue minerals, most commonly magnesian silicates. Most chrome ores now used are petrographically chromitites which is a rock, rather than an individual mineral term. The title of this chapter, following past usage, is meant in the broad sense. Chromite is the only primary commercial source of chromium. This book is intended to deal only with nonmetallic minerals and rocks. Chromite uses are both metallic (ferroalloys) and nonmetallic (refractories and chemicals), but any discussion of mineralogy, geology, and mining is common for all types. A number of the major commercial ores are interchangeable, and their uses are determined by economic considerations. Mineralogy COMPOSITION [Chromite is a term embracing a wide range of chromium-bearing spinel*-group minerals the compositions of which can be expressed as (Mg,Fe2+)0.(Cr,AI,Fe3+ )203.t This can be further generalized to R2+O.R23+03 and the molecular RO: R,03 ratio is generally close to one. The exact composition may be arbitrarily expressed as a solid solution of six end-members, MgAI2O4, MgCr2O4, MgFe2O4 FeCr2O4, FeA12O4, and Fe2+.Fe23+04 with the proportions of each stated or plotted in the six-cornered prism of Johnston and Stevens61 or this scheme may be simplified to comprise only three endmembers making up a composition triangle, Fig 1. [ ] FIG 1-Triaxial composition diagram showing molecular compositions of chromites listed in Table 1. The RO.Fe2O3 corner includes Ti02 norms listed in the table. Note that the high-alumina chromites (1, 2, 3, 9), form a cluster well apart from the high-Cr2O3 chromites. There is a tendency for high-iron chromites to be higher in Fe2O3 + TiO2 but it is not a consistent or systematic relationship. The MgO/RO ratio must also be known to characterize the chromite chemically. Simplest and most convenient method is Thayer's' in which a chromite such as (Mg.65Fe.352+)O.(Cr.40Al.50Fe.103+)203 would be written as (Mge,) Cr eAlo. The molecular pro- portions of ferrous and ferric oxides can be seen at a glance as the divalent and trivalent oxides]

Jan 1, 1960

By Oliver Ralston

DURING experimental study on the separation of a zinc concentrate from the heavy sulfide ores of Jerome, Ariz., a great deal of attention has been given to proper activation of the sphalerite content of the ore. The sphalerite at Jerome contains enough iron to class it as a marmatite, as picked specimens have only about 60 per cent. zinc, whereas pure zinc sulfide contains 67 per cent, zinc. This marmatite in large pieces is black in color, but in dry powdered state is brown. A flotation froth made from it has a silvery black luster in comparison with a brassy luster caused by chalcopyrite which occurs in the same ores. The sample used in most of the experiments described below consisted of about 3000 lb. of diamond-drill core from the zinc-bearing orebodies of the United Verde mine, and had the following analysis: PER CENT. PER CENT. Oz. PER TON Cu 0.695 A1203 0.83 Ag 1.30 Zn 6.17 S...:: 43.35 Au 0.02 Fe 36.23 CaO 0.46 Si02 9.27 Mineralogically, this analysis is calculated to the following, which is in agreement with the microscopic examination: PER CENT. PER CENT. Chalcopyrite 2.0 Schist 3.2 Marmatite 10.32 Quartz 8.2 Pyrite 73.0 Calcite 0.9 All samples were ground in a laboratory ball mill in order to leave about 3 per cent. on a 200-mesh sieve, fine grinding being essential to liberate the minerals in the ore. Most of the Jerome ores are so intimately crystallized that reasonably complete unlocking by grinding does not take place until 800 mesh is approached. Therefore, the 200-mesh grind adopted contains a considerable amount of locked mineral grains, but not so much as. to render impossible the preparation of commercial grades of concentrate:

Jan 1, 1929

By WILLIAM WATERS

L HISTORY. THE Pierrefitte mines, situated in the South of France, in the district of the Hautes-Pyrenees, owe their name to the fact that the first mining operations of any extent, and of comparatively recent date, were carried out in the neighborhood of the vil¬lage of Pierrefitte, which is a branch terminus of the Midi railway. The Pierrefitte mines, however, embrace a wide extent of country and several different concessions, on most of which comparatively little exploration-work has been done. The portion of the property presently to be described is a zone running roughly E-W., over a distance of about 5 miles from the valley of Cauterets to the valley of Estaing, the ridge dividing these valleys being a spur of the main chain of the Pyrenees, and running more or less at right angles to it. According to local tradition, which various indications tend to confirm, these mines are of ancient date, the first workings being attributed to the Romans, who are supposed to have sought not only the lead but also the silver which is contained in the ore. Old slags have been found in the neighborhood which might well have been produced from the cupellation of lead-ores. These old workings, while of considerable extent at times, do not seem to have extended beyond a depth of 100 ft., even this depth being somewhat exceptional. The old notarial records of the district show that mines were known to exist, and that they were even worked, in the sixteenth century, but since the mines were abandoned (by the Romans or others) considerably prior to this period, very little

Nov 1, 1908

Discussion of the paper of H. M. WARREN, A. S. BIESECEKER and E. J. POWELL, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 110, February, 1916, pp. 181 to 193. R.. V. NORRIS, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.-For many years the power requirements of breakers designed in the Anthracite. Region have been based on calculations made from indicator diagrams taken during operation, with various sections of machinery idle; these, while giving reasonably accurate figures, gave no intimation of the peak loads which have been shown so clearly in the paper. The high-speed flywheel for breaker rolls is new and shows a remarkable saving in peak power required, besides eliminating the stalling of the rolls from overload. The figures given are so far in advance of anything previously published that they will undoubtedly be used as a basis for future breaker design. It is to be hoped that the authors will continue this investigation and extend their paper by a description of the motors found best suited for this work. WILLIAM KENT, Montclair, N. J.-I notice on p. 187 reference is made to one of the difficulties being the starting torque, and it is proposed to use roller or ball bearings in order to decrease the high starting torque. I suggest that. before the roller or ball bearings are put in, an investigation be made as to the amount of the starting torque, as shown by wattmeter measurements and as to what the starting torque ought to be, theoretically, according to the energy formula; that is, how much starting torque is required to accelerate the rotating mass in a given number of seconds up to full speed. Having secured this information it may be found the amount to be saved by roller bearings is not very great. If it appears that roller bearings will not greatly decrease the starting torque, the next thing to be done is to have a special design of motor in which there is a field that can be made very strong at the start, by the use of extra poles or other means, and the next thing that may be done is to increase the speed from 10,000 r.p.m. to 25,000, which can be done with wire-wound flywheels, especially if the wires are made of vanadium steel.

Jan 5, 1916

By CLYDE M. EYE

THE Sub-province of Benguet is in the North Central part of the Island of Luzon. Baguio, the capital, is situated on a piateau 5000 ft. above sea level, and is the main health resort of the Philippines. It is rapidly becoming the favorite resort for the China Coast as well, and has many miles of beautiful, curving drives with nearly every pine-covered knoll surmounted by a summer home. The United States Army has a recreation post here, known as Camp John Hay, with a well-equipped hospital, and there is a Country Club with a good golf course adjacent. The weather during the winter months and until late spring is ideal. The business center consists mainly of Chinese and Japanese stores, several hotels, and a large public market, in which are displayed all of the vegetables of the temperate zone, which are flown near Baguio, and many tropical and other products brought up from below. This district is reached from the Coastal Plain either by the old Benguet road built in 1904 by the United States Government, or by the Naguilian road, built some years later. The former is now a toll road, with a line of stages operating over it to and from Des Mortes in connection with the government-owned rail- road. Auto travel from Manila is also along this road, the trip from Manila to Baguio requiring about seven hours, following up the great valley north of Manila for nearly 150 miles to the lower end of the Benguet road, and thence to Baguio, 25 miles. This is an interesting, scenic trip; the road is especially famous for the zig zags where it climbs out of the canyon of the Bued River to the plateau. In the September number of the National Geographic Magazine, a fine aerial picture of this road, as well as of other interesting points in various parts of the Philippines, appears. Freight for the district is taken in mainly over the Naguilian road connecting with the railroad at Bauang. This route follows the ridges of the mountain slope with broad vistas and views of the coast.

Jan 1, 1930

By V. B. Tare, H. Schmalzried

The use of solid electrolytes for determining kinetic paraneters at elevated tevnperatures is pointed out. The reaction rate constant k1 of the phase-boundary reaction during oxidution of iron to wiistite by CO2-CO gas mixtures has been deternined between 850 nnd 975C, using ZrOz(+CaO) as an electrolyte. Values are between 1.4 x 10-a and 5.2 x 10 ole per sq ctn atm. The tzain difficulty is due to mixed potentials arising from side reactions at the electrolyte inteyface. In a number of papers the calcium-doped zirconia electrolyte has been used for the determination of thermodynamic data from measured differences in oxygen activities (or potentials) between two electrodes. The purpose of this note is to suggest the use of this solid electrolyte for kinetic measurements as well. The principle can be seen from Fig. 1. A thin and compact phase II (electron conductor) is fixed on a plate of gas-tight, polished ZrO2(+CaO) (I), which separates two compartments with different oxygen potential. p, is a constant reference pressure of oxygen (1 atm). The electromotive force of this galvanic cell is given by E = RT5 In pep, and pe is the oxygen partial pressure at the interface electrolytephase 11. If phase I1 is in equilibrium with the surrounding gas phase, p, = DR. If pg changes sud- denly to a value pi, p, and therefore the electromotive force, E, change as a function of time according to the phase-boundary reaction rate at the gas phase I1 interface and the transport processes inside phase 11. It is assumed that local equilibrium is established at the boundary electrolytephase 11, that the gas phase shows no concentration gradients, and that the con-

Jan 1, 1967

By D. G. Mickle, H. L. Hartman

Hydraulic filling was probably first used as a means of ground support in 1864 in an anthracite mine at Shenandoah, Pa. In the nearly 100 years since that time it has gained widespread acceptance, but surprisingly little study has been made of the basic features of the process. The investigations that have been made primarily concern the design of preparation processes and transportation systems, while little attention has been paid to ensuring that the fill does its job adequately after placement. Both permeability and compressibility of fills have been studied in the laboratories of the Department of Mining at The Pennsylvania State University under the sponsorship of the Mineral Conservation Section, formed to promote efficient utilization of the state's resources. Results of these studies form the basis of this article.

Jan 11, 1961

By R. H. Gautschi, F. C. Langenberg

Rare-earth additions were made to laboratory heats of Type 310 stainless to observe their effect on as-cast ingot structure, nitrogen and sulfur contents, and nonmetallic inclusions. Lanthanum had a grain-refining effect in 30-lb ingots, but results with 200-lb ingots were inconsistent. Cerium, lanthanum, and misch metal lowered the sulfur content when the sulfur exceeded 0.015 pct and the rare-earth addition was greater than 0.1 pct. The rare-eardh content in the metal dropped very rapidly within the first few minutes after the addition. The size, shape, and distribution of nonmetallic inclusions was not changed in 30-lb ingots, but changes were noticed in larger ingots. RARE-earth* additions have been made to austenitic Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn steels to improve their hot workability. The high alloy content of these steels often results in a considerable resistance to deformation and inherent hot shortness at rolling temperatures, particularly in larger ingots. Rare earths in the metallic, oxide, or halide form are usually added to the steel in the ladle after deoxidation although they can be added in the furnace prior to tap or in the molds during teeming. The literature- indicates that the effects of rare-earth treatments on these stainless steels are not consistent, and sometimes even contradictory. Since no mechanism has been presented which satisfactorily accounts for the claimed improvements, the effects of rare earths are a qualitative matter. The work described in this paper was initiated to expand the knowledge of the effects of rare-earth additions on melting variables such as ingot structure, chemical analysis, and nonmetallic inclusions. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Ingot Structure—Rare-earth additions to stainless steels have been reported to cause a change in primary ingot structure in that there are fewer coarse columnar grains. However, the results are inconsistent. While one investigation1 has shown a large reduction in coarse columnar crystals, another2 has been unable to observe this effect, particularly when small ingots were poured. Post and coworkers3 observed ingot structures for a number of years and found that the columnar type of structure is not definitely a cause of any particular trouble in rolling or hammering, provided the alloy is ductile. Knapp and Bolkcom4 found rare-earth additions to be quite effective in preventing grain coarsening in Type 310 stainless steel. Chemical Analysis—Many effects of rare-earth treatment on chemical analysis have been claimed in the literature. Russell5 observed that some sulfur is removed by rare-earth metals, and that a high initial sulfur content improved the efficiency of sulfur removal. Lillieqvist and Mickelson6 report that rare-earth treatment causes sulfur removal in basic open-hearth furnaces, but not in basic lined induction furnaces. Knapp and Bolkcom found no sulfur removal in acid open-hearth and acid electric furnaces, probably because the acid slag can not retain sul-fides. snellmann7 showed that sulfur could be lowered apprecfably with rare-earth additions; however, a sulfur reversion occurred with time. Langenberg and chipman8 studied the reaction CeS(s) = Ce(in Fe) + S(in Fe), and found the solubilit product [%Ce] [%S] equal to (1.5 + 0.5) X 10-3'at 1600°C. Results in 17 Cr-9 Ni stainless were about the same as those in iron. Beaver2 treated chromium-nickel steels with 0.3 pct misch metal and observed some reduction in the oxygen content. He also noted an inconsistent but beneficial effect of rare earths when tramp elements were present in amounts sufficient to cause difficulty in hot working. It is not known whether rare earths reduce the content of the tramp elements or change the form in which these elements appear in the final structure. No quantitative data are available concerning a possible effect of rare-earth treatment on hydrogen and nitrogen contents. However, Schwartzbart and sheehan9 stated that additions of rare earths had no effect on impact properties when the nitrogen content was low (0.006 pct), but served to counteract the adverse effects of high nitrogen content (0.030 pct) on these properties. Knapp and Bolkcom4 analyzed open-hearth heats in the treated and untreated conditions and found the nitrogen content (0.006 pct) to be unaffected. These two results lead to the speculation that rare-earth additions can reduce the nitrogen content to a certain level. Decker and coworkers10 have observed that small amounts of boron or zirconium, picked up from magnesia or zirconia crucibles, increased high-tem-

Jan 1, 1961

By Kiyoshi Azuma, Hiroshi Kametani

Dissolution of a ferric oxide in acid solution is divided into two different types In the accelerated type dissolution proceeds in three stages 1) an inittal reaction during which the dissolved amount of oxide is nearly proportional to the cube root of time ; 2) an accelerated reaction: and 3) a final stage during which dissolution approaches completion. This course of dissolution gives an S-shaped curve in the above sequence OH a log weight percent of dissolved oxide against log time graph. In the parabolic type dissolution proceeds in four stages: first and second stages similar to those of the accelerated type; 3) parabolic-rate dissolution during which the dissolved amount of oxide is nearly proportional to the square root of time: and 4) a final stage. The effect of the kind of acid, the temperature of solution, and the concentration of acid was investigated. The results are discussed and a rate equation is proposed. AN attempt has been made to obtain some information on dissolution of a ferric oxide in various acid solutions. In view of hydrometallurgical processes the dissolution of ferric oxide is of less importance than that of zinc oxide or copper oxide in general. One of a few processes which intend to dissolve ferric oxide is an elimination of iron impurity from acid-insoluble materials. However, most leaching processes of oxide ores and cinders are accompanied with more or less dissolution of iron. According to Pryor and Evans1 the rate of dissolution of a ferric oxide in various acids decreased in the order of hydrofluoric acid > hydrochloric acid > sulfuric acid > perchloric acid. This order was in accord with the order of decrease of the complexing affinity of the anion for ferric ion,

Jan 1, 1964

By George Smith

The Australian Broken Hill Consols mine is situated within a third of a mile eastwards of the famous Broken Rill Proprietory mine; but, so far as has yet been proved, the respective lodes have no connection whatever. The Proprietory line of lode, striking N.E. and S.W., is coincident with the bedding-planes of the inclosing gneiss, and, according to Mr. E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M., government geologist, is undonbtedly a saddle-formation. This opinion, which met with much opposition at the time it was advanced, is now, I understand, being generally confirmed as the work of development opens out fresh areas for observation along the line of lode. The lode is of immense thickness—in places over 300 feet and though it has been found to contain sufficient quantities of secondary silver compounds to yield phenomenal outputs of silver, its principal constituents are various lead and other ores, and it would appear more correct to regard it as an argentiferous lead-deposit than as a silver-lode proper. The Consols lode differs from its gigantic neighbor in every respect. With an average thickness of not more than 18 inches, it has been worked along its course for upwards of 1300 feet, and at every point yet explored has been found remarkably well-defined and persistent. With a strike E. and W., it cuts obliquely across the bedding of gneiss and schist, continuing uninterruptedly through various bands of eruptive amphibolite. The dip, which is to the south, ranges from 24 near the surface to nearly vertical in the lower levels; but the alteration is not regular, as in places the lode is almost flat, and this at a vertical depth of over 300 feet. These changes of inclination have had no effect on the ore-deposits, which, as I shall endeavor to show, have been governed entirely by " cross-

Jan 1, 1897

By E. S. Shaw

Utah continues as a very unimportant factor in oil and gas production. During the year 1933 there were no developments of noteworthy significance. There were no completions of either producers or dry holes during the year. The only commercial production in Utah has been from the five fields listed in Table 1 and mentioned briefly in the following paragraphs. Virgin Field.—Oil was first discovered in 1907 in a well drilled in sec. 13, T.41S., R.12W. Of the first 15 wells drilled, all but three were failures. In 1920 production from four wells from 550 to 600 ft. deep was about 20 bbl. per day. San Juan Field.—The majority of drilling in this area was done during the years 1908 to 1911. Probably the first commercial well in the field was that drilled in NW.$i sec. 6, T.42S1 R.l9E., in 1909. Farnham Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1923. A number of years later a second well was drilled by The Carbon Dioxice a mica1 Co., the present operator, which markets the gas in the manufacture of "dry ice" and allied products. The eslimated production, as indicated in Table 1, includes 500 million cubic feet estimated to have been lost while drilling the discovery well. Cisco Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by The Utah Oil Refining Co. in November, 1924. The Crystal Carbon Co. markets the gas in the manufacture of carbon black. Ashley Valley Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1925. The Uintah Gas Co. markets the gas in Vernal, Utah, for fuel. Woodside Structure.—In February, 1924, gas was discovered in a well drilled by Utah Oil Refining Co. in sec. 12, T.l9S., R.l3N., on the Woodside structure. This gas is reported to contain an appreciable amount of helium. It is being held as a helium reserve by the United States Government. Salt Valley Structure.—The test of the Utah Southern Oil Co. in sec. 31, T.23S., R.21E., on the Salt Valley structure has been shut down for some time at 6120 ft. This test has passed through more than 5000 ft.

Jan 1, 1934

No review of underground mining should begin with anything but the new world safety record set at the Grace underground iron mine of Bethlehem Steel at Morgantown, Pa., on Friday, November 12. There had not been a disabling injury (an injury which keeps an employee away from his next scheduled shift) for 550 working days. In all, 2,660,080 man-hours had been worked by nearly 950 employees without a disabling injury. The record was wrested from Johns-Manville's Jeffrey mine at Asbestos, Que. At 3 p.m. Friday, December 3, miner Stanton E. Friend was completely buried under several feet of coarse rock, fortunately sustaining only cuts and multiple abrasions. But with his fall, the accident- free period came to an end at 2,778,600 man-hrs worked without a disabling injury-the new record!

Jan 2, 1966

The Raymond Memorial Volume, which the Members of the In-stitute have been so anxiously awaiting since the beloved man's death, is nearly ready for publication. It will contain about 45,000 words and some illustrations and a frontispiece portrait. This book promises to fill every expectation of the contributors to the volume and the host of admirers of the genius who so long guided the destiny of the Institute. It will contain one of Doctor Raymond's best stories, entitled "James and Jim;" his famous article on "Job on Mining;" and one of his poems entitled "The Grand Canyon." A biography of Doctor Raymond has been written by his daughter, who is the wife of a member of the Institute. The memorial addresses delivered by Dr. Henry F. Drinker and T. A. Rickard at the annual meeting in New York in 1919 will be included. There will also be very interesting reminiscences by H. M. Howe, A. S. Dwight, C. W. Goodale, R. W. Hunt, Lyman Abbott, J. F. hemp, T. A. Rickard. The volume has been edited by T. A. Rickard, which promises all that can be wished for the volume from a literary standpoint. The edition will he limited so that it is very desirable that orders for this volume be sent in to the Institute as promptly as possible. The price will be $5.00.

Jan 12, 1919