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By William H. R. Gibney

Pine Point Mines is located in the Canadian Northwest Territories about 1,200 kilometers north of Edmonton, Alberta, close to the south shore of Great Slave Lake. Originally staked in 1898 by prospectors en route to the Dondike gold rush, it was not until the mid-1940's that large scale exploration was undertaken and Pine Point Mines Limited was formed. Work was suspended in 1954 while studies were made to resolve one of the main problems, transportation. In 1961, under the Canadian Government "Roads to Resources" program, agreement was reached for the construction of the Great Slave Lake Railroad and plans made to put the property into production. A townsite was established in 1963 and plant construction commenced. The first production was in the form of high grade ore which was shipped to Kimberley, B.C. for concentration starting in late 1964. The Pine Point concentrator started up in late 1965 when hydroelectric power became available. Initially designed for 4,540 metric ton per day, facilities were expanded to a designed 7,250 metric ton per day in 1969. Problems associated with mining operations at Pine Point are not unique but are augmented by the isolation, climatic conditions, topography, high water table and spread out nature of the operation. Maintenance of a reasonably stable work force is the number one problem but this is gradually being overcome as more local people are trained and oriented from a nomadic type life to an industrial society. The purpose of this paper is to give a general description of the mining operations of Pine Point Mines Limited and to review some of the problems encountered in the operation along with problems associated with northern operations.

Jan 1, 1970

By W. G. Whildin

This paper will be confined to a discussion of the methods in use in the property of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co. in the Panther Creek valley. Only the methods used in mining the Mammoth vein will be .considered, as the methods in use in the smaller veins are adaptations of the same. Typical cross-sections of the coal basin are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The Mammoth vein varies in thickness. It is 21 ft. at one colliery, 50 to 125 ft. at another, and over 200 ft. at still another. Its normal thickness is 35 to 40 ft. At some points in the Panther Creek basin the Mammoth vein is made up of three splits-the Bottom, Middle, and Top, while in other portions the dividing strata between the benches amount to only 1 ½ to 2 ½ ft., and the vein is practically in one. The section of the Mammoth vein shown in Fig. 4 was taken at the Greenwood colliery, and shows a thickness of 60 ft. The miners know it by benches, as follows:. The Three-Foot, the Four-Foot, the Eighteen-Inch Slate, the Bony, the Grey Slate, the Grain Clear, the Five-Foot, the Seven-Foot, the Slaty or Dirty benches, the Blue Slate, and the Top bench. The present-day methods of mining are an outgrowth of the experiences of the last 100 years in this territory. The first attempt at mining, according to the company's maps, was made at Summit Hill in 1792, when open cuts and pits were made. Later the pillar-and-breast method was introduced. This and other methods will be discussed hereinafter. Drifts, slopes, and shafts, according to the requirements and physical conditions, are the main openings, from which the gangways are driven. The gangways (haulageways) and airways are driven along the strike of the vein; the gangways in the various veins on the same level being connected by tunnels through the intervening rock. The gangways and airways in thick veins are heavily timbered ;throughout. The sets of timber, consisting of a collar and two legs, are spaced 5 ft. apart, and later, after the ground :has settled, additional sets, called "liners" or "relief sets," are placed between, to relieve the strain on the original timbers, so that the result is a set of timber every 2 ½ ft.

Jan 12, 1914

By Francis T. Havard

A Reply to the Discussion by Mr. Francis T. Havard of the Paper by Mr. Henry W. Edwards, which was read at the Atlantic City Meeting, February, 1.904. (Annual Meeting, February, 1905.) MR. HENRY W. EDWARDS, Grand Junction, Colo. (communication to the Secretary) :* Effect of Heat. It should be remembered that the coefficient of expansion of concrete is nearly that of iron; therefore in constructing flues the design must take account of this important detail. The cracking of flues, mentioned by Mr. Havard as having occurred at a temperature of 100° C. and above, . were possibly caused by neglecting to appreciate the extent of the expansion and contraction of the concrete. Effect of Atmospheric Moisture.-The moisture present in the atmosphere is exceedingly injurious to flues of any material, and those made of concrete are no more susceptible than of brick. My experience with flues of the Monier construction, having walls from 1.5 to 2.5 in. thick plastered upon a net-work of iron rods, was unsatisfactory from the standpoint of dura¬bility.

Mar 1, 1905

By Dale A. Vaughan, Oliver M. Stewart, Charles M. Schwartz

Solid-solubility limits at 1500°, l000q and 500°C for carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen in high-purity tantalum were determined by X-ray lattice-parameter methods. For carbon, the solubility was found to be 0.17 at. pct at 1500°C, and less than 0.07 at. pct at 1000°C. A nitrogen solubility of 3.70 at. pct at 1500° C decreases linearly with temperature to 2.75 at. pct at 1000°C, and 1.8 at. pct at 500°C. In the case of oxygen, the solubility was found to be 3.65 at. pct at 1500°C, 2.95 at. pct at 1000°C, and 2.5 at. pct at 500°C. The phases Ta2C, the low-temperature modification of Ta205, and Ta,N of unknown composition but which has a superlattice structure based upon the original bcc tantalum lattice have been identified as the initial precipitates in the respective systems. Metallographic methods were employed to verify the X-ray analyses. The etching behavior of Ta is discussed in terms of lattice i?rzperfections and precipitate phases. The excellent fabricability, high melting point, and nuclear properties of tantalum are responsible for interest in this refractory metal. Data on the solid solubility of the interstitial elements (oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon) in tantalum and on the precipitate phases are somewhat limited. The significant contributions are discussed below. Because the purity of electron-beam melted tantalum (only recently available) is considerably higher than that used in previous studies, the present investigation was initiated. Gebhardt et all-3 have investigated the tantalum-oxygen and tantalum-nitrogen systems with particular reference to the changes in physical properties and to the rates of reaction between these gases and the metal. The solubility of oxygen in tantalum was reported2 to be 3.7 at. pet at 1500°, 2.3 at. pet at 100O°C, and 1.4 at. pct at 750°C. Schonberg4 reported that several oxide phases (Ta40, Ta,O, TaO and Ta,05) exist while X-ray studies by Gebhardtl showed only two oxides, Ta,05 and an unidentified phase which was associated with a platelet-type precipitate. La-gergren and Magneli,' however, questioned the existence of compounds other than the two allotropic modifications of Ta,05 for the tantalum-oxygen system. In the case of nitrogen, the solubility was estab- lished by Gebhardt3 to be of the order of 7 at. pct at 1800°c. The solubility was reported to decrease rapidly with temperature, and, although no limits were established, a precipitate phase was observed by Gebhardt except when the high-nitrogen specimens were cooled very rapidly from the reaction temperature of 1800c. He reported the initial precipitate phase to be a tetragonal distortion of the bcc tantalum lattice while Schonberg6 reported the phase lowest in nitrogen Jo be a cubic super-lattice with a cell size of 10.11 A. Two other nitride phases, Ta,N and TaN, were reported; these appear to be isomor-phous with the carbides of tantalum. The tantalum-carbon system was investigated by Ellinger7 and by Lesser and Braurer. Two compounds, Ta,C and TaC, were reported to exist, each with a range of composition. The solubility of carbon in tantalum was found to be practically nil at all temperatures. Thus, of the interstitial elements which are present in small amounts in high-purity tantalum, carbon might be expected to form precipitates. The present investigation was initiated to obtain additional data on the solid-solubility limits of these interstitials at 1500°, 1000°, and 500' with particular emphasis on the distribution and the identification of the precipitate phases. EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND RESULTS In the present investigations of the solid solubility and of the precipitate phases in the systems tantalum-nitrogen, -oxygen, and -carbon, high-purity tantalum was reacted with high-purity gases, homogenized at 1800°c, and annealed at and quenched from 1500°, 1000,

Jan 1, 1962

At its meeting on February 21, 1933, the Board of Directors passed the follow¬ing resolution defining and expressing the policy of the Institute with respect to official participation or action m controversial matters WHEREAS, the Board of Directors at its last meeting passed the following resolution "The Board of Directors, having been appealed to by several Local Sections for advice concerning the attitude and policy of the Institute relating to the endorsement of candi

Jan 1, 1952

By Seishiro Hirakawa, Hiroshi Tokunaga, Hironori Nakamura

Two unique processes of reclaiming zinc from various secondary materials were developed and have successfully been operated for years by Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co. These processes were established based on the characteristic and local energy conditions; i.e., (1) at Miike Smelter, located above the largest coal deposit in Japan, a combination of slag fuming and semi-blast furnace (MF)processes takes advantage of using coal and the carbon bearing briquette residue from the vertical retort plant as reducing agents, (2) on the other hand, at Kamioka Smelter, a direct reduction of zinc-bearing lead slag by using electric furnaces is of advantage in view of cheap electric power supply from our own hydraulic power plants. The former also consumes lots of zinc bearing fines and drosses from various steel plants, fabricators and secondary zinc smelters, while the latter, zinc leach residue from its own electrolytic plant

Jan 1, 1976

By K. K. Rao, M. E. Nicholson

IN a recent paper on the solubility of carbon in Ni-Cu alloys,' Nicholson reported that the carbon solubility appeared to be limited by the electronic structure of the alloys and that the solubility was propor- tional to the density of states at the Fermi surface of the "3d" band. In order to determine whether or not this relationship is a general one, the study has been extended to other systems. One of these is the CO-Ni system. This system was chosen for study because 1) it is adjacent to Ni-Cu system in the periodic table, 2) the alloys of cobalt and nickel do not form stable carbides at 1000°C, and 3) the system exhibits no pronounced change (less than 1 pct) in lattice parameter from cobalt to nickel,' see Fig. 1. The alloys were prepared from -200-mesh 99.92 pct Ni furnished by the International Nickel Co. and spectroscopically pure -200-mesh cobalt sponge obtained from Johns on-Matthey and Co. The powders were weighed, mixed, and pressed using a pressure of 40,000 psi. The samples were sintered for 24 hr at 900° C in dry hydrogen and then cold rolled to a thickness of 0.010 in. (Samples containing more than 70 wt pct Co had to be annealed after cold reductions of about 20 pct to avoid cracking.) The alloys were carburized at 1000°C in an alun-durn boat containing Acheson AUC powdered graphite in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide cylinder gas which had been passed through Ascarite to remove carbon dioxide. After carburizing for either 12 or 24 hr the samples were moved to a cool zone of the furnace to cool. Cooling required about 5 min. The samples were filed to remove about 0.005 in. from the surface and then analyzed using a conventional combustion-gravimetric analytic method. The results of this investigation are shown in the lower portion of Fig. 1 and Tabulated in Table I. The nickel percentages for these alloys were determined from the weights of the powders from which the alloys were made. The solubility of carbon in pure cobalt at 1000°C (fcc) is 0.25 wt pct. This is somewhat less than the 0.33 wt pct measured by Boecker.3 From his data, it would appear Boecker's samples were supersaturated before the equilibrating treatment and that a 20-min treatment was not long enough to achieve equilibrium. Since in the present investigation the 12 and 24 treatments produced essentially equal carbon contents, our figure is presumed to represent more nearly the equilibrium value. The solubility of carbon in nickel of 0.19 wt pct agrees quite well with the value of 0.21 wt pct

Jan 1, 1963

By Ihor A. Kunasz

Lithium minerals occur predominantly in pegmatites which contain mineral assemblages derived from the crystallization of postmagmatic fluids or from the metasomatic action by residual pegmatitic fluids. They have been the traditional sources of raw materials for ceramic and chemical industries. However, with the discovery of Searles Lake, brines became new sources of lithium. Indeed, the 1960s may well be referred to as the "brine decade" because several brine bodies of significant economic importance were discovered. In the United States, the brines of Clayton Valley, Nevada, presently exploited by Foote Mineral Co., and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, to be exploited by the Great Salt Lake Chemicals Corp., have been defined as major sources of lithium. Also a lithium-bearing brine has been discovered in Chile. Following the termination of the AEC purchase program in 1959, several companies such as Maywood Chemical Co., American Lithium Chemicals, and Quebec Lithium Corp. were forced to close down their operations. Nevertheless, with the development of new applications in glass ceramics, air conditioning systems, synthetic rubber, and metallurgy (aluminum potlines), the lithium industry grew steadily, and with the potential application of lithium metal in batteries and nuclear reactors, a healthy growth can be foreseen. New products and new applications are likely to stimulate exploration for expanded reserves as well as the search for new sources from which lithium could be extracted economically. Geochemistry of Lithium Lithium is the third element in the periodic table. It is the lightest of all the metals, having an atomic weight of 6.938. Its ionic radius is 0.60A and its charge is + 1. The geochemistry of lithium has been extensively studied and has been summarized by Rankama and Sahama (1950), Goldschmidt (1937), and Hortsman (1957). The distribution of lithium in igneous rocks is controlled by its size and its charge, and by the (MgO+FeO)/Li2O ratio. In the early stages of crystallization of a magma, that ratio is very large. Consequently, both magnesium and iron are removed by ferromagnesian minerals in preference to lithium which is then concentrated in the residual magma. This results in an enrichment of lithium in silicic rocks and pegmatites (Strock, 1936). Pegmatites are coarse-grained igneous rocks formed by the crystallization of postmagmatic fluids. Minerals within pegmatites may also form by metasomatism (Jahns. 1955). Genetically, the pegmatites are associated kith neigh- boring intrusives. Mineralogically, granitic pegmatites contain feldspar, quartz, and mica as the main constituents and a variety of exotic elements such as lithium, beryllium, tantalum, tin, and cesium, which may or may not occur in economically significant concentrations. Detailed studies by numerous investigators (Cameron et al., 1949, 1954; Hanley et al., 1950; Jahns, 1953, 1955; Page et al., 1953) indicate that pegmatites often exhibit an internal zonal arrangement, with each zone containing a specific suite of minerals. The lithium minerals are usually found in the intermediate zones, and although as many as 13 zones have been recognized by Cameron, a complete zonal arrangement is rarely found. Zoning of pegmatite bodies has also been observed on a regional basis. The regionally zoned pegmatite sequences exhibit mineral assemblages and complexity according to their respective distance from the granitic bodies to which they are genetically related (Mulligan, 1965). Lithium is also found in small proportions in a variety of rocks. The average lithium

Jan 1, 1975

By Carle R. Hayward

LEAD ore smelting plants have been operating in general at reduced capacities and secondary lead has assumed relatively more importance during the last year. Present smelting practice results in a large amount of dross, often over 25 per -cent, from blast-furnace lead. This is usually treated at a fairly high temperature in a reverberatory furnace to remove part of the lead and produce a matte-speiss product which is shipped to a copper plant. Few smelters are satisfied with this 'treatment. The fume losses are high and the matte-speiss contains considerable lead. It would seem that a fruitful field for research was open here.

Jan 1, 1934

By R. E. H. Pomeroy

THE statistical data given in this paper are taken from the actual performance of the No. 2 reverberatory furnace of the Nevada Consolidated Copper Co., Me Gill, Nev., for a period of four months, from April to July, 1914. The principal furnace dimensions are: Length, 132 ft. ½ in. at the skim-line level; average width, 18 ft., 10 in. at the skim-line level. The roof is 7 ft. above the skim-line level at the firing end. The average area in the uptake flue is 36 sq. ft., and the area above the skim line under the vulcatory arch is 24.3 sq. ft. Fig. 1 shows a diagrammatic plan and sectional elevation of this furnace. The furnace is equipped with two 400-b.h.p. Stirling waste-heat boilers set in parallel. California crude petroleum is used for fuel and has a specific gravity of 16.5° B., flashing in open test at 199° F. The oil is heated to about 200° F. in a steam heater before going to the burners, requiring about 9 b.h.p. per furnace day to heat it from the line temperature to the burning temperature. Measurement is made by oil meter, checked daily by reservoir readings. The oil is fed by gravity (34 lb. static pressure) to seven low-pressure blast burners of the Steptoe type (Fig. 2). The blast for these burners is supplied at about 40-oz. pressure by a motor-driven Connersville blower of 42 cu. ft. capacity per revolution. The air supplied by the blower through the burners for atomizing the oil amounts to about 10 per cent. of the theoretical air necessary for complete combustion of the oil. The remainder of the necessary air enters the furnace through the burner openings in the firing wall. No checker holes are provided, and the charge holes in the roof are equipped with slide gates and "dog houses? to minimize air leakages. The combustion of the fuel, as shown by gas analysis at the front of the furnace, is practically complete, the carbon monoxide in the gases being less than 0.5 per cent.

Jan 2, 1915

By W. E. STOKES

SOME extension of flying service to the mining industry occurred in 1938, particularly in Canada, where freighting activity radiated from Edmonton into the new northern mining districts. Again the airplane demonstrated its usefulness in getting new equipment rapidly into the field and in decreasing shutdown time while waiting for repairs. An 18-ton Caterpillar tractor with shovel attachment was disassembled, brought in by plane, and placed in operation at Berens River, Ont., within seven days after its de- livery at Winnipeg. At Central Patricia a mill breakdown required the replacement of a full mill head and trunnion with ball bearings, weighing 2700 lb. The Canadian Airways Junkers, termed the "flying boxcar," was called in from Yellowknife, 1300 mi. away, and the new installation was completed three days later.

Jan 1, 1939

By P. H. Mell

The little village, from which this formation receives its name, is situated on a bluff of the Alabama River, 175 feet above water level. This bluff is a portion of high table land that begins in the western portion of Choctaw and extends through Clarke and Monroe counties. We find points on this ridge more than 100 feet higher than Tuscaloosa, and nearly as high as the Tennessee River at Tuscumbia. Through this the Alabama River cuts its way, exposing a beautiful cross-section of the strata, of which the accompanying sketch may give some idea. The fossils are found about 75 feet below the surface and 100 feet above the level of the river. There are seven distinct strata. 1. The lowest, extending from the water's edge up the bluff 80 feet, is a soft calcareous rock containing about 15 per cent. of carbonate of lime, with occasional specks of mica. In this a few Ostrea, Turritellæ, and Flustræ were found, but so friable as to fall to pieces when handled. 2. Next comes a stratum varying from 2 to 8 feet, consisting of

Jan 1, 1880

By Blandford C. Burgess

Mica is an orchid among minerals. It is formed in pegmatites, one of the most bizarre of igneous formations, and is exceeded by few other minerals in the perfection it may attain as to size, color, and cleavage. First used for window glazing, as an ornament and article of trade, it has become one of the most essential insulators of electricity, heat, and shock. Most internal combustion engines use mica condensers or capacitors and such machines of war as planes, tanks, and submarines are immobile without it. The original manuscript of this guide was written in April 1943 at the peak of war emergency. It was not used be- cause shortly thereafter a decision was made to buy on a one price basis eliminating differentials for both quality and size. This is now presented with the thought that from the standpoint of preparedness we can only consider an- other war imminent and every effort should he made to set up in usable form the experience gained during the Second World War. Colonial Mica Corp. was set up by Metals Reserve Co. as a wholly owned government agency to encourage production of domestic mica and to purchase it. It soon became the exclusive buying agency for such mica. The writer as Southern Manager called on all the private agencies buying mica to assist in formulating buying policies, methods, and prices.

Jan 1, 1949

By T. M. Allen, W. H. White

THE Greenwood-Grand Forks area of southern central British Columbia, known as the Boundary District, has a long history of mining exploration and production. At the turn of the century this was the premier copper mining camp in the British Empire, its total production amounting to some 20 million tons. Most of this ore came from the great Granby mines at Phoenix, but the Motherlode mine at Deadwood camp, 6 miles to the west, and several mines in Summit camp, 5 miles north of Phoenix, made important contributions. The large deposits were exhausted in 1918 and the district since has seen only desultory exploration and salvage operations. The orebodies are mineralized skarn zones in limestone members of a thick series of Upper Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic strata. Chalcopyrite is the primary ore-mineral. Copper carbonates and silicates occur sparingly in outcrops, but the oxidized zone generally is very shallow. Much of the surface is mantled by glacial drift which in most places ranges in thickness from 2 to 15 ft. In some of the hanging valleys, however, the glacial drift may be as much as 100 ft thick and may assume drumlin-like forms. In 1951 an ambitious program aimed at the discovery of new orebodies and important extensions of abandoned deposits was launched by Attwood Copper Mines, Ltd. In this district so thoroughly searched by an earlier generation of prospectors, any orebody which had remained undiscovered must have little or no surface indication. Consequently, in addition to the basic detailed geological work, the program of exploration included magnetometer and self-potential surveys. Geological bets and geophysical anomalies were tested further, prior to diamond drilling, by a study of copper distribution in tree twigs and/or in the soil. The soil sampling and analytical methods used and some of the results seem of sufficient importance to warrant this paper. The authors had done some plant sampling in this and other districts, using the dithizone neutral-color-end-point method (Warren and Delavault, 1948, 1949; White, 1950),1-3 but they were unfamiliar with its soil application. Finally, after much experimenting in the field, they adopted the methods described here. These methods are not entirely original or defensible on theoretical grounds, but under field conditions of rapid sampling and analysis the results are reliable enough to be of use. Fig. 1, which shows the results of duplicate analyses of duplicate soil samples taken at 50-ft intervals across an anomalous zone, indicates the relative dependability both of the sampling and analytical methods. Sampling and Analytical Equipment A 2-ft piece of 1-in. solid drill steel, one end sharpened to a broad, conical point. The steel is marked at 1 ft from the point. A 2-ft piece of ½-in. black iron pipe, one end filed to a bevelled cutting edge. The pipe is marked at 1 ft 3 in. from the cutting end. A 3-lb hammer. A plastic or rubberized sheet about 18 in. square. Moisture-proof assay pulp envelopes. A 10-mesh seive made from window screen with the paint burnt off. A small assay spatula. A pan balance sensitive to 10 mg. Two ignition trays about 4 in. square, made of sheet iron turned up along the edges. A Coleman two-burner gasoline stove. An asbestos board about 5x8 in., used as a hot plate on the gasoline stove. A circular aluminum rack to hold 8 test tubes while refluxing (design of Almond and Morris). Pyrex Glassware Large refluxing test tubes, 25x200 mm, marked at 40 ml volume. Breakers, 20 ml. Pipettes, 1, 5, and 10-ml capacity. Graduate, 50 ml. Shaking cylinders, 100 ml, glass stoppers. Burette, 25 or 50-ml capacity, with holder. Chemical Supplies 1 N sulphuric acid. Hydroxylamine hydrochloride, solid crystals. Fisher Alkacid test paper. Copper standard solution. Dithizone standard solution 60 mg per liter. Water reasonably free of metals. Soil Sampling Method: The problem of how to take a soil sample is extremely crucial. The method outlined below, adopted after a number of tests, has the advantages of uniform pattern, uniform depth, and uniform size of sample. The area to be tested was marked off by chain and compass lines 100 ft apart, normal to the strike of possible ore deposits. Numbered stakes were set at 50-ft intervals along these lines and a soil sample was taken at each stake in the following manner. The drill steel was driven into the ground normal to the slope of the surface to the marked depth of 1 ft, moved slightly from side to side, then carefully withdrawn. The iron pipe was inserted to the bottom of this hole, tapped down to the marked depth of 1 ft 3 in. and withdrawn; the 3-in. soil plug in the

Jan 1, 1955

THE award from the fund established by Mrs. John-son, in memory of her husband, J. E. Johnson, Jr., to be given to some promising engineer, not over 40 years of age, because of meritorious research, inven-tion or contribution to the professional literature of iron and steel along the lines of blast-furnace process, has been given, for, 1928, to P. H: Royster. Mr. Royster was born at Raleigh, N. C., in 1888. and graduated from the University of North Carolina, in 1907, taking his A.M. degree at, the same school in 1908. He then went to Harvard where he continued research work in physics. After engaging for a while in commercial research in the turbine department of the General Elec-tric Co. and with Cutting and Washington he joined the staff of the Bureau of. Mines in 1916 and was assigned to work on the physical chemistry of the blast-furnace process. He worked with A. L. Feild on slag viscosity and they jointly presented-to the Institute the. papers on "Temperature and Viscosity Relations in the Ter-nary System CaO-A12O3-SiO2" (TRANS. LVIII, 658) and "Slag Viscosity Tables for Blast-furnace Work" (TRANS. LVIII, 650). He also presented a paper on "Production of Ferromanganese in the Blast 'Furnace" .(TRANS. LXII, 18), and jointly with T. L. Joseph contributed a paper on "Effect of Coke Combustibility on Stock Descent in Blast Furnaces" (TRANS. LXX, 236), and another on "Pyrometry in Blast-furnace Work" which was included in the special pyrometry volume published in 1920. The titles of these works perhaps sufficiently indicate the part Mr. Royster has played in the notable research work on the blast-furnace process carried on by the Bureau of Mines, and for which the committee recommended him to the Board of Directors to receive the Johnson award.

Jan 2, 1928

By Keith Leonard Sutherland

AEROFLOAT 25 is a complex mixture of free cresylic acid with aryl substituted dithiophosphoric acids, sulphides, disulphides, etc. Its complete composition has not been published by the makers or patentees. It is prepared1 by the reaction between phosphorus pentasulphide and carefully selected cresylic acid. We have been informed that this acid contains no phenol and very little cresol, and that it is rich in the higher alkyl phenols, particularly the xylenols. The reaction between a phenol ROH and phosphorus pentasulphide may produce compounds of the following type:2 [ ] Except for the simplest type, the thiophenols (ii), the boiling points of these compounds lie above 300" C. The amounts of the thianthren compounds formed from the five xylenols (if all these are present) will vary according to the position of the substituents. In an attempt to ascertain something of the nature of the reagent, fractional distillation under atmospheric pressure was undertaken. At the outset, hydrogen sulphide was freely evolved, and-particularly below 200°, C.-the fractions had the strong odor characteristic of the

Jan 1, 1939

By J. P. Kerr, W. N. Logan

Lack of reliable and detailed information on many of the older fields in Indiana has necessitated the use of x and y in many instances. Even in the younger fields many data were lacking. It was thought that even though much was to be desired regarding the amount and accuracy of the information on the old Trenton field, it was too important to be left out. We trust that we are not perpetuating any of the inaccuracies that are to be found in the data for Indiana.

Jan 1, 1935

By W. A. Young

Polynomial functions of temperature were obtained for the specific heats, thermal diffusivities, and thermal conductivities of zirconium hydrides containing 4 at. pct U. Three hydrides (H/Zr atom ratios of 1.58, 1.65, and 1.70) were studied over the range a" to 900°C and a fourth (H/Zr = 1.81) was studied over the range 0° to 760°C. The specific heats were determined from enthalpy measurements which were obtained using a unique drop calorimeter specifically designed for use with materials in which high temperature phase transitions and/or high dissociation pressures occur. Thermal diffusivities were measured by the flash method using a pulsed laser. The thermal conductiuities were obtained as the product of specific heat, thermal diffusivity, and density. The specific heats agree, within 10 pct, with values derived using a theoretical model in which the hydrogen and zirconium atoms are treated as Einstein and Debye oscillators, respectively. RELIABLE values of the thermophysical properties of the fuel are required to predict the operating temperatures and temperature response of SNAP nuclear reactors. Among the most important of these properties are the thermal conductivity, specific heat, and thermal diffusivity. A considerable number of investigations1-4 have been made of these properties for the Zr-H and Zr-H-U systems.* However, little of the drides, however, this direct method cannot yield meaningful results, since the hydrogen will redistribute under the influence of the thermal gradient, thus forming a concentration gradient; hence, one has a spectrum of compositions, rather than a homogenous alloy. Although the "average" composition of the material may be identical to the initial uniform concentration, the directly measured value of conductivity will be dependent on the thickness of the specimen, due to the highly sensitive dependence of transport properties on hydrogen content. This dependence is strikingly illustrated by the work of Bickel,5 who found that the electrical conduction of zirconium hydrides ranges from primarily hole conduction to primarily electronic conduction, depending upon the hydrogen content. Fortunately, the direct measurement of thermal conductivity is unnecessary, since it can be expressed as the product of the specific heat, thermal diffusivity, and density, all of which can be directly measured with considerable accuracy. EXPERIMENTAL Specimen Preparation. The combined fuel-moderator material used in SNAP reactors is a hydrided zirconium-uranium alloy containing -10 wt pct U. The alloy used in this work was representative of that used in nuclear reactors except that normal uranium was substituted for the enriched uranium required for reactor usage. It was produced by a triple-arc-melt and double-extrusion process. All specimens were prepared from a single cylindrical extrusion which contained 10.30 pet U, 89,35 pct Zr, and 0.35 pct impurities, The specimens for each composition were hydrided simultaneously with ultrapure hydrogen (10 ppm total impurities) using standard fuel production techniques which routinely yield homogeneous, crack-free fuel with negligible increases in the impurity levels. The hydrogen content of each specimen was determined from its weight gain and the density was measured by liquid displacement, Chemical analyses yielded hydrogen concentrations which agreed with the weight gain data within ±0.02 in H/Zr atom ratio) the concentrations of all other elements agreed almost exactly with the initial values after adjustment for the added hydrogen. The specimens used for the determination of specific heat were centerless ground to 2.00 cm diam after hydriding. A thin slice was carefully removed From each end for metallographic examination. In every case, this examination revealed a uniform structure as evidenced by the appearance and distribution of the two phases present in the fuel at the hydrogen concentrations used. TWO specimens (H/Zr = 1.600 and 1.632) appeared to be entirely 6 phase with equi-axed grains; the specimen with H/Zr = 1.756 showed

Jan 1, 1970

By George W. Pawel

OWING largely to its value as a toughener and strengthener of steel for both industrial and military purposes, nickel is playing, an important role in the current war. It is fine of the metals in which the Allies enjoy a definite edge over the Axis nations and this time there is no place to which the Germans may send another submarine "Deutsehland" and expect to pick up a cargo of nickel to replenish their exhausted supplies. Total world nickel production thanks almost entirely to the expanded operation of the International Nickel Co. of Canada at Sudbury must now be at the rate of around 175,000 tons a year scarcely more than 5 per cent of which is accounted for by Germany, Italy and Japan. This represents more than four times the world output at the end of the first World War.

Jan 1, 1943

By W. N. Hiatt

The mathematical theory of the flow of two-phase, incompressible fluid through porous media is clarified, and the development of a general fluid displacement equation for two-phase, incompressible vertical flow through porous media is outlined. The relationship between the three components of the equation — the "fluid drive effect", the "gravity effect", and the "capillary effect'' — is discussed, as well as implications of the analysis in connection with the study of certain types of petroleum reservoirs. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to clarify and summarize the mathematical basis of the theory of two-phase incompressible fluid flow through porous media, particularly as it pertains to vertical flow, and to present a qualitative* exposition of the controlling factors involved in circumstances where this type of flow may exist. Although the generally accepted theory of heterogeneous fluid flow through porous media was developed a number of years ago by Muskat,1 and Buckley and Leverett2, 3 using the basic premise of Darcy, (and since then expounded upon by many others) there is a need for an over-all summary and clarification of this theory, especially regarding certain types of applications in connection with so-called "gravity-drainage-type reservoirs". The source and derivation is outlined for what is referred to here as the "General Fluid Displacement Equation for Incompressible Vertical Two-Phase Flow through Porous Media''. This equation would apply under the condition where the pressure drop along the path of flow is negligible in comparison with the pressure level on the system, or where compressibility and solubility effects are negligible. These conditions exist ordinarily in gravity-drainage-type reservoirs. Specifically, it will be shown that this general equation may be developed directly from the basic equations, which, according to present theory, govern the general case of viscous heterogeneous flow through porous media. This general equation has appeared in the literature previously, but in most cases its development from basic theory is not indicated clearly, or the equation is presented in terms of groups of constants and variables involving reduced or dimensionless quantities. This presentation is expedient in cases of experimental or computer applications; but it may make it difficult for the practicing petroleum engineer to identify all the factors involved or to understand the relationships between them. Therefore, in the following development, only ordinary mathematical parlance will be used, and no terms involving groups of other equations or reduced or dimensionless quantities will be used. DERIVATION The following equations for two-phase oil and gas flow result from analogy with Muskat's general equations,** if solubility and compressibility effects are neglected, and if all volumes are considered in terms of reservoir conditions, and the water phase, if present, is considered to be immobile (or effectively a part of the porous medium.) In this case, the sum of the oil and gas saturations may be taken as unity, and the saturation of each phase is in terms of the total hydrocarbon saturation. Note that in Eqs. 1 and 2, and in the derivation following, z is taken as positive in the vertically downward direction,

Jan 1, 1969