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By Kathleen M. Kowalski

This research explores the emergence of leadership in a crisis situation. The study by the U.S. Bureau of Mines focuses on three underground mine fires and the resulting evacuations. The subjects for this study are 48 coal miners, who evacuated the mines as part of eight escape groups, The subjects described their escape during an open-ended interview. Data were coded according to: (a) evidence of leadership behavior, (b) evidence of lack of leadership behavior, and (c) characteristics of the individual in each group who led the subjects out of the mine. During analyses, attributes of the leaders, who facilitated the escapes, were noted and compared as were instances of lack of leadership. The structure of the group leadership before the crisis was compared with the reality of the leadership during the crisis. Some groups experienced an apparent breakdown of leadership during their escape, while others witnessed the emergence of leadership. Consensus characteristics of the leaders, who emerged during these crises, are discussed and generalizations drawn. Research into leadership during emergency escapes is needed to provide information for training in prevention, escape, and rescue. The authors suggest questions for further investigation and topics for further inquiry into the area of leadership evolvement during crisis.

Jan 1, 1994

By John P. Capp

The feasibility of simultaneously burning several paths through a coalbed to develop a multiple path underground gasification system was investigated by the Bureau of Mines during two experiments, Boreholes were drilled through the overburden and into the coal and arranged in a circle approximately 50 feet from a central borehole. In the first experiment, in an area which had previously been hydraulically fractured,5 air was injected at the center borehole. The coal was ignited at the other boreholes and the fire fronts traveled toward the center, counter to the flow of air, to backward burn paths through the coalbed. Two paths were linked during the first 5 days of operation. The outlets of these two paths were throttled and air pressure was increased to maintain the flow of air, but no other linkages were made. Fourteen days after the two linkages these two paths were opened and gasification was carried on for 10 days, but with only moderate success. In an effort to overcome operating difficulties air was injected at the peripheral boreholes, and the gases were drawn off at the center borehole. Reversed flow operations continued for 12 days and two more paths linked. The heating value of the gas generally was higher than 100 British thermal units per standard cubic foot (B.t.u. per std. c.f.). Because only four of seven paths linked, however, the entire system could not be evaluated with respect to product-gas output and recovery of energy.

Jan 1, 1961

By David Schlain

The galvanic corrosion properties of titanium and zirconium were investigated by the Bureau of Mines. The dissimilar metals involved in these experiments included magnesium, magnesium alloy FS1, aluminum alloys, zinc, steel, tin, lead, copper, Monel, nickel, and several stainless steels. Couples were immersed in synthetic ocean water, tap water, 5-percent ammonium sulfate solution, 5-1/2-percent sodium chloride solution, sodium hydroxide solution, 0.1 N hydrochloric acid, and various concentrations of sulfuric acid.

Jan 1, 1956

By Richard Havens

A flotation procedure was devised by the Federal Bureau of Mines for beneficiating Mount Wheeler, Nev., beryllium ores that contain the beryllium minerals bertrandite and phenacite in a complex association with calcite, fluorspar, mica, quartz, and other accessory minerals, The method also has proven to be effective in trials on ore from the Lake George, Colo., area. Samples used in most of the research ranged from 0.49 to 0.73 percent BeO. Beryllium mineralization varied from two-thirds bertrandite to all phenacite. An unusually high grade sample containing 5 percent BeO as phenacite was floated on a batch basis to prepare concentrate for utilization studies. The beryllium minerals were floated from undeslimed pulps at natural pH using sodium fluoride and sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), as modifiers, and a fatty acid-fuel oil combination as the collector. Key factors were the use of a minimum of about 4 pounds of sodium fluoride and between 2 and 4 pounds of HMP per ton of ore. Efficacy of the HMP was related to the grind, mineralogical composition, corollary reagents, and type and time of conditioning. Addition of the fluoride, HMP, and collector in that order, followed by appropriate conditioning after each addition, was essential for satisfactory flotation.

Jan 1, 1961

By T. I. Weston

This is one of a series of papers being prepared for and published by the United States Bureau of Mines, describing mining and milling methods and costs at crushed-stone plants throughout the United States. These papers are designed to disseminate technical information regarding the methods used. The cost tabulations represent operating expenditures only and not total production costs. It is recognized' tat publication of total production costs might in many instances cause embarrassment to individual producers, as well as to the industry as a whole. However, operating costs are essential to the technical discussion and study of the methods employed. The attention of the reader is specifically called to this differentiation in order that no mis-understanding of the scope of the cost tabulations shall ensue. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance-of F. W. Horton, mining engineer, United States Bureau of Mines, in the preparation of this paper.

Jan 1, 1933

By W. H. Young

THE DOMEST[C bituminous coal and lignite industry remained fairly steady in 1959 compared with 1958. Although mechanization continued to expand and production increased slightly, consumption, average value, exports, and employment decreased. The percentage of underground production mechanically loaded, the percentage of total production mined by stripping, and tonnage per man per day were at their highest levels. Production.-The output of bituminous coal and lignite in 1959-412 million tons-was 0.4 percent greater than the 410.4 million tons produced in 1958. Production was retarded in 1959, largely owing to the steel strike and reduced exports.

Jan 1, 1960

By Michael D. Dunn

The Bureau of Mines evaluated a quartz schist formation within the Blue Joint Wilderness Study Area which was identified as having a "high potential" for copper-silver-cobalt-barium resources. Stratiform and remobilized copper occurs near, and bedded barite within, the study area. In addition, the black to gray Proterozoic quartz schist may correlate with the Yellowjacket Formation which contains cobalt-copper-gold-silver deposits at Blackbird, ID, about 30 miles to the south. Eighty soil and 43 rock samples collected across the quartz schist formation were analyzed for gold, silver, copper, cobalt, and barium. During the reconnaissance and sampling, particular attention was given to looking for malachite (copper carbonate) and erythrite (cobalt arsenate, also known as "cobalt bloom"). The sample analyses and geology in this localized area do not provide enough evidence to support the "high potential" designation for copper-silver-cobalt resources. Barium potential still appears high, however.

Jan 1, 1987

By Fredrick L. Johnson

In 1984, at the request of the U.S. Forest Service, the U.5, Bureau of Mines began a study of the 94,370-acre Arc Dome study area (4-667) in order to appraise its mineral resources, The Bureau of Mines mapped and sampled mines, prospects, and mineralized sites in and near the area, The study area is located in the Toiyabe National Forest, about 54 mi north of Tonopah, Nye County, NV, It is estimated that over 500 claims have been staked in the study area since the mid-1800?s. In January 1986, there were 108 active mining claims completely inside and 59 on the boundary. Another 283 active claims were outside the study area but within 1 mi of the boundary, In addition to the large number of claims staked, exploration activity is also reflected by the almost 700 inactive workings that were found during field investigation.

Jan 1, 1989

By W. R. Hardwick

Nuclear explosive fracturing has been suggested as a method to make hard rock amenable to extraction by a modified block-caving method. To evaluate this possibility, conventional and nuclear blasting practices are discussed, underground mining methods for large deposits and their costs are described, and the cost of fracturing ore with a nuclear explosive and subsequent mining by a modified caving system is estimated and compared with both open-stope and block-caving mining costs. While the direct cost of fracturing the ore in hard rock with a nuclear explosive is less than with conventional explosives, additional costs imposed by the use of nuclear explosives may make their use unattractive for deep mining.

Jan 1, 1970

By Wendell R. Peters

Shallow underground voids resulting from early coal mining and other resource recovery activities over the past several decades are now being recognized as a significant cause of ground subsidence problems in developing urban areas. Uncertain knowledge of abandoned coal mines also imposes potential hazards in coal excavation operations since water inundation or the release of methane gas is a pricnipal hazard when mine excavation operations break into an abandoned mine. U.S. Army requirements for an effective method for detecting and mapping subversive man-made tunnels have resulted in a surface-operated automatic earth resistivity survey system with a digital computer data processing system. Field tests aimed at demonstrating the system performance resulted in successful detection of tunnels having depth-to-diameter ratios up to 15 to 1. Under the sponsorship of the Bureau of Mines, a similar system was designed and constructed for use in the detection of coal mine workings. This report discusses the hardware and software aspects of the system and the application of the high-resolution earth resistivity method to the survey and mapping of abandoned coal mine workings. In the field tests reported, the targets of interest were both air-filled and water-filled workings.

Jan 1, 1980

By Jerry Olson

The Bureau of Mines (Bureau) conducted a mineral resource investigation of the French Creek-Patrick Butte study area, in west central Idaho during 1989. No mineral resources or significant occurrences were identified. Other than small scale placer gold, no mineral production is known or recorded. At least 100 lode and 150 placer claims have been located in the study area. Most of the area was examined by ground or areal surveys, and 110 lode and 60 placer samples were taken. Four lode prospects were examined in detail, and all placer claim locations were sampled.

Jan 1, 1991

By James J. Scott

Workshops were held in eight states during the period from December 12. 1975. through June 25, 1976, under U. S. Bureau of Mines Contract to the University of Missouri-Rolla. The workshops were designed to help define the Bureau's research and development priorities. At each workshop a summary of the current Bureau mine reclamation research was presented which was followed by identification of problems associated with mine land reclamation in the state where the meeting was being held. Discussions included the seriousness of problems locally and how the Bureau could best undertake research to assist the state in solving the problems identified. Participants included representatives of state agencies, educational institutions, and companies involved in surface mining. Attendance at these workshops totaled 201 persons who displayed a wide variety of opinions and ideas as to what should be done In government research and development efforts. A breakdown of these attendees is as follows: 91 state and Federal employees; 69 mine operators, equipment manufacturers and consultants; 33 educators and researchers; and 8 others representing such varied interests as environmental and conservation groups, news media and students .

Jan 1, 1976

By R. W. Stahl

Coal mining has been revolutionized by the continuous miner. This machine has replaced, or has combined into 1, 3 former operations: Cutting, blasting, and loading. During the 25-year period before this machine was introduced, advances had been made in transportation, but the actual "coal getting" remained virtually the same. As frequently occurs, the multiple-purpose continuous miner introduced a new hazard--more rapid liberation of methane. The coal output formerly obtained from 10 to 20 working places might now be obtained from 1. It is true that circulation of air was generally increased; but the bulk of this machine virtually precludes continuous flow of air across the face, where gas may accumulate. Apprehension about this possible hazard led the Bureau of Mines to test face atmospheres during operation; and Report of Investigations 5288, Methane Buildup During Cutting and Continuous Mining Operations (published in 1956), presents proof that real danger may be present in many otherwise well ventilated mines.

Jan 1, 1958

By Benjamin W. Haynes

This Bureau of Mines publication comprises a compilation of the state of the science in Pacific Ocean manganese nodule mineralogy and elermental composition. The report is divided into three sections: morphology, mineralogy and elemental composition. The nodule morphology section defines what is considered a nodule for the study, and details the external characteristics and internal structure. Nodule mineralogy is discussed in three sections: manganese minerals, iron oxide minerals, and accessory minerals. The major manganese minerals discussed are todorokite, birnessite, and vernadite. The iron oxide minerals are less well known and include feroxyhyte, goethite, and lepidocrocite. Accessory minerals present include quartz, clays, and other silicates and nonsilicates. A discussion on moisture content is also included. The elemental composition section presents data on 74 elements occurring as cations or anions. Summary data, histograms, and interelement correlation coefficients are presented. The elements are grouped as follows: major and minor elements of potential economic interest (8), other major and minor elements (9), elements of environmental interest (8), rare-earth elements (15), precious-metal-group elements (6), radioactive elements (3), other trace elements (17), and anion-forming elements (8). Cross sectional determinations of Ni, Cu, Zn, Co, Pb, Fe, Ce, and Ba are given for a single nodule to show the general tendency of different growth patterns within a nodule because of different element associations and composition.

Jan 1, 1982

By C. H. Elder

Coal degasification boreholes drilled from the surface have been success-fully hydraulically stimulated to increase the flow of gas from the coal. This Bureau of Mines report describes the hydraulic stimulation procedure for a coalbed, the equipment required, and design criteria for the treatment. Three examples of stimulation treatment show from fivefold to twentyfold increases in gas production. The tests were conducted in the Pocahontas No. 3 coalbed, Buchanan County, Va., the Pittsburgh coalbed, Washington County, Pa., and the Mary Lee coalbed, Jefferson County, Ala. Two sites where the coal was hydraulically stimulated and exposed by subsequent mining show no adverse effect on mining operations through the treated zones. The induced vertical partings were confined to the coalbed and did not in any way affect either roof or floor rock.

Jan 1, 1975

By A. D. Hahn

The Federal Bureau of Mines examined ilmenite-bearing sands in southern Texas as part of a program to discover sources of supply for the domestic titanium industry. Deposits were examined from May 1956 through January 1959 in the outcrops of sandstone beds in the Jackson group of Eocene formations in Lee, Burleson, Fayette, and Starr Counties on the Gulf Coastal Plain; in alluvial valley fill in Brewster County in southwest Texas; in the sand beaches of Matagorda Peninsula and the Galveston, Padre, and Brazos Islands--part of the offshore chain of barrier islands along the Texas coast; and in unconsolidated sediments in Willacy County on the Rio Grande delta in the southeast Texas.

Jan 1, 1961

By Annie G. Smelley

The Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, as part of its mission to effect pollution abatement, conducted research to devise means for disposing of phosphatic clay wastes and reclaiming mined land. Part of the investigation was performed in a cooperative research project with 10 phosphate companies in Florida. The colloidal properties of the phosphatic clay suspensions, called slimes, make them difficult to dewater and dispose of without impoundment storage aboveground. Various reagents to flocculate and dewater these plant wastes were evaluated, and a polyethylene oxide polymer was found to function in a specialized flocculation dewatering technique. The flocculation dewatering method was investigated in bench-scale batch tests and applied in continuous dewatering tests using standard mineral-processing equipment. In continuous tests at feed rates of up to 58 liters per minute, wastes at 4 percent solids were dewatered to about 20 percent solids. About 0.8 kilogram of polymer was used for each metric ton of dry waste clay solids; processing time was about 4 minutes. Requirements for the treatment system are (1) proper mixing of the clay-waste feed and flocculant, (2) rapid removal of water as it is released, and (3) physical manipulation to promote cohesion of solids.

Jan 1, 1979

By Oliver Bowles

Chalk is defined as a noncrystalline, soft, friable, fine-grained, light-colored type of limestone. It consists essentially of calcareous shells of minute organisms known as "foraminifera," although skeletal remains of molluscs, corals, and sponges are also present. Flint balls which are found so commonly in the chalk cliffs of Europe are regarded as segregations of the remains of certain organisms, such as radiolarians and sponges, that secrete siliceous shells or spicules. The famous chalk beds of northwestern Europe are of Upper Cretaceous age, a geological period that was particularly favorable for the develop- ment and multiplication of foraminifera. The distinguishing physical characteristics of true chalk never have been fully defined; probably its noncrystalline and colloidal properties are most important. The properties of chalk, whiting, and whiting substitutes are not well understood, and much re- search is necessary before definite reasons may be ascribed for the behavior of these materials under various conditions of use. The Bureau of Mines has undertaken a detailed study of chalk and similar materials to determine their exact properties and to establish a basis for classifying formations loosely designated as chalk occurring in various parts of the United States, but the results of this study will not be available for some months. Whiting is a pulverized, purified, and carefully sized chalk. Whiting substitutes consist of finely ground limestone or dolomite, ground marble (marble flour), white marl, and chemically precipitated calcium carbonate.

Jul 1, 1931

By William M. Knuth

The objectives of this study were the evaluation of the technical and economical feasibility of utilizing color and color infrared aerial photography to satisfy some informational needs for pre-mine planning, mine progress monitoring, and reclamation monitoring. Seven aerial data collection missions were conducted within a two year period over strip mine sites in Pennsylvania. Scales of 1:6,000; 1:12,000; 1:24,000; and 1:48,000 were flown on the first aerial mission. The 1:12,000 was chosen as the optimal scale for the remaining six flights. An extensive literature and legislative review and discussions with strip mine operators identified the informational parameters that could possibly be obtained from aerial photography. Interpretability accuracies were evaluated for parameters in the broad categories of land use, soils, water, vegetation, and geology. Seasonal interpretation characteristics were noted for infrared photography. Man hours for photointerpretation and costs of aerial data collection were monitored closely and incorporated into a cost benefit analysis. Those parameters that could be mapped, identified, or measured with accuracies =75 percent were incorporated into a photointerpretation training manual. An additional analysis was performed to determine the applicability of the interpretation methodologies and results developed for Eastern sites to Western surface coal mining sites. In addition, a separate aerial photographic interpretation manual was produced during this contract. It is intended to be utilized by eastern and midwestern surface mine operators and regulatory personnel.

Jan 1, 1978

By D. Harrington

Although for many years considerable attention has been given to devising safe and efficient methods of using explosives, with some success, relatively little has been done to provide satisfactory storage facilities for them. This was known long before the present war began, but it was emphasized during the past 30 months? inspections of explosive magazines by employees of the Bureau of Mines in administration of the Federal Explosives Act of December 26, 1941. These inspections have revealed woeful in adequacy as well as definite hazards and the urgent need for obtaining better storage facilities either by remodeling old magazines or constructing ink new ones that would afford suitable protection for the contents against theft, fire, deterioration, and detonation. The purpose of this paper is to offer suggestions and to show by sketches and drawings some of the fundamental features of suitable magazines. Type of construction and available materials differ with different; localities, but the information herein contained can be applied to most magazines, whether already constructed or the construct: on of which is planned. It is hoped that this information will be helpful and will aid persons who are trying to provide suitable storage for explosives end detonators. It is also hoped that States and cities will be made aware of the unbelievable laxity practiced in storing explosives in the United States and will take some remedial action.

Jan 1, 1945