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By M. M. Fine

In an experimental study by the Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with National Lead Co., the roast-flotation process was found to be an effective means of upgrading certain cobalt-nickel stockpiles. The research was undertaken to determine whether the process could yield an enriched feed, with a minimum cobalt content of 6.0 percent, for the company refinery. The stockpiles (products of the company Fredericktown, Mo., milling operations) were essentially complex sulfides of cobalt, nickel, copper, lead, and iron, 1 sample of which contained 2.84 percent Co and 3.57 percent Ni. After a controlled oxidizing roast at 400° C., laboratory flotation with conventional sulfhydric reagents yielded an enriched concentrate analyzing 9.22 percent Co and 11.43 percent Ni, with recoveries of 84.9 and 85.8 percent, respectively. These are typical laboratory data; other data indicated higher grades were possible but at reduced recoveries. A brief, continuous campaign verified the applicability of the process to the raw material in question but was not continued long enough to establish optimum conditions. As a consequence, the results of the large-scale tests did not equal those obtained in the laboratory but definitely confirm the beneficiation possible from the roast-flotation process.

Jan 1, 1958

By BUREAU OF MINES

The Bureau of Mines, in its investigations of respiratory apparatus for use in mines and allied industries; tests equipment that is voluntarily submitted by manufacturers in accordance with published schedules of tests. These tests are designed to insure that the equipment has the minimum requirements for safety in use. Approval certificates are issued for apperatus that meets the bureau's specifications, and the manufacturer is permitted to mark his equiment with a seal showing that it has been approved as "Permissible." A complete list of per- missible self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus, gas masks, and hose masks tested prior to January 1, 1930, was published in Bureau of Mines Information Circular 62309. The present list includes all equipment tested and approved prior to July 1, 1930.

Sep 1, 1930

By Joseph C. Zelanko, Anthony T. Iannacchione

One of the most difficult, longstanding engineering problems associated with coal mining is the catastrophic failure of cog mine structures known as bumps. For more than 70 years, researchers and practitioners have assembled a wealth of technical information on coal bumps in an attempt to understand and control them. However, many technical issues raised long ago are still being debated today. This paper examines past experiences and recognizes achievements in the realm of coal bumps. U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) researchers collected and analyzed 172 coal bump incident reports and compiled the pertinent statistics into a database. Actual field studied are also discussed. Examination of past experience has shown that there is no one set of defining characteristics that is responsible for coal bumps. In all cases, bumps occur when complex arrangements of geology, stress, and mining conditions interact to interfere with the orderly dissipation of stress. However, it is evident from the database that a tremendous reservoir of knowledge has been established from past experience that has unquestionably limited the severity of coal mine bumps in the United States.

By Nicholas Kyriazi, John P. Shubilla

A joint effort by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) was undertaken to determine how well self-contained self-rescuers (SCSR's), deployed in accordance with Federal regulations (30 CFR 75.1714), survived the underground environment with regard to both impact damage and aging. This report presents findings regarding laboratory-tested SCSR's from 1982 through 1990. The SCSR's were tested on human subjects and on a breathing and metabolic simulator (BMS). These results indicate that most of the apparatus, if they pass their inspection criteria, perform as expected except for units with manufacturing defects or design deficiencies. However, when the apparatus are carried in and out of the mine daily and stored at the working section, they may suffer abuse. Physical signs of abuse, unless extremely obvious, are frequently not detected by the miners or mine operators. This poses a potential danger to a user in an emergency. Recommendations include improved training in inspection procedures.

Jan 1, 1992

By Matthew J. DeMarco, Anthony T. Iannacchione

Coal bumps have presented serious mining problems in the U.S. throughout the 20th Century. Fatalities and injuries have resulted when these destructive events occur at the working face. Persistent bump problems can result in abandonment of large reserves or lead to premature mine closure. Through the years, alternative techniques such as artificial supports, extraction sequencing, destressing, pillar design changes and specific pillar retreat practices have been successfully implemented to mitigate coal mine bumps. Several techniques have evolved for room-and-pillar operations that control the way the roof rock breaks, regulating the manner in which stresses are redistributed in the mined section. Special mine layouts employed in longwall mines have also proved to be successful in safely redistributing or containing excessive loadings. However, with ever increasing production rates, greater overburdens and new mining systems, the need to evolve even more effective bump control designs will continue to challenge the U. S. coal mine industry.

By Larry Patts, Michael J. Brnich

Approximately 45% of U.S. coal is produced from underground mining. The use of diesel engines to power under- ground mining equipment has steadily increased over the past four decades in an effort to improve mine safety and productivity. Several advantages realized with the use of diesel-powered mining equipment in underground coal mines are listed in Table I. The primary disadvantage of using diesel equipment in underground coal mines is that diesel exhaust emissions can contaminate mine ventilation air. The major constituents of diesel exhaust are gaseous emissions (which include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur oxides and unburned hydrocarbons) and diesel particulate matter (DPM). The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) has incorporated threshold limit values for all gaseous components of diesel exhaust into their regulations. These have been established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

By Howard C. Turnage, Dana T. Updyke

An evaluation was made of one of several improved underground communication systems sponsored by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The system evaluated was installed in a typical metal/non-metal room and pillar mine and utilized UHF repeaters connected to a unique distributed antenna and passive reflector system which provided mine-wide communications. A microprocessor controlled data collection system was assembled and installed for the evaluation. Data consisting principally of times and durations of messages and identities of the originating transceivers was collected between February and August of 1982 (6 mos.). Analysis of the data shows that the principal benefits are reduction in time required for unscheduled maintenance and repair, enhancement of safety, and better coordination of production activities. A cost benefit analysis shows a net benefit over cost, although it is also concluded that the capacity of the system is greater than can be justified by current activity in the mine.

Jan 2, 1983

Perform laboratory tests to measure the vibration attenuation characteristics of off-road vehicle operator seats for various types of seat suspensions, cushions, and seat adjustment settings. Background A study was conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines to determine the probability of whole-body vibration (WBV) exposure for a large class of off-road machinery operating in surface coal mines. The study determined that mere than 40 pct of off-road equipment operators were exposed to WBV exceeding the standard fatigue-decreased-proficiency (FDP) level defined by the International Standards Organization in its guideline ISO standard 2631. The tire-terrain interaction of a moving vehicle generates vibrations that are transmitted through the ve¬hicle suspension, cab mounting, and seat. The final point of transmission of vehicle vibration to the operator is through the scat. A seat that provides good vibration isolation and allows good vehicle control is of prime importance to operator safety and health.

Jan 1, 1993

By G. L. Neumann

In October 1949 the College Park Branch of the Mining Division instituted a survey of the New England pegmatites. Many of the New England pegmatite deposits were superficially examined, and the Bumpus quarry in Albany, Oxford County, Maine (see fig. 1), was selected for a diamond-drill exploratory-development project to supply information for developing more economical mining methods and no increasing production of beryl and other scarce minerals associated with pegmatitic intrusives. The Bumpus quarry has been mined intermittently by three operators since it was opened in 1927. At the time of drilling, the vein or dike (see figs. 2 and 3) had been mined to a depth of 60 feet for a strike length of 280 feet. The dike averages 40 feet in thickness and dips 50 degrees southeast. The Bureau of Mines drilled seven diamond-drill holes between September 27 and November 27, 1950. These holes showed that the dike persists for at least 350 feet to the east and probably 200 foot to the west of the present excavation. The drilling also indicated that the dip, as exposed at the surface, continued unchanged at 500 to a depth of at least 50 foot below the pit. The dike was not delineated, although it fingered out as pegmatite interbanded with Granite, diorite, and gneiss in diamond-drill hole B-4, approximately 250 feet west of the pit. Further drilling will be necessary to find the extent of this pegmatite dike and to determine the safest and most economic mining system.

Jan 1, 1952

By J. W. Paul

"The economic features of coal mining must take into account the drain on the man power. Study over a recent 5-year period reveals an average yearly loss of 2,125 underground men, of whom 1,182 are killed by falls of roof and coal, and according to recent data compiled by the Bureau of Mines it is estimated that 54,000 men sustain lost—time disabling injuries from the same cause.Under normal activity of the mines approximately 50 lives are taken by falls of roof during every 10 days the mines are operated, or 5 persons are killed per day, which, at a compensation charge of $5,000 each, amounts to $25,000 per day. Add to this the similar number killed by causes other than by falls of roof and we have $50,000 as an approximate daily fatality charge for each day the mines operate. On the basis of 200 working days per year, this amounts to the alarming figure of $10,000,000 annually. An investment at 5 per cent to yield this amount would require $200,000,000, which is equivalent to a capital investment of $0.40 per ton of coal, produced annually, on the basis of 500 million tons. These figures apply only to fatalities for which a fixed or stated amount is paid for compensation and do not include the compensation and hospitalization paid for the approximately 103,000 upon whom idleness is enforced by a lost-time disability injury. In one State having an annual production equal to approximately 30 per cent of the total bituminous production of the United States, the most recent data shows that for each fatality there are eight serious injuries causing 60 days or more lost time. The frequency rate of accidents for that State is less than the average for the United States, and so a conservative comparison may be made by using the figures of that State in estimating the total serious injuries, which gives 16,000 as losing 60 days or more. The average number of underground employees in the coal mines of the United States for the past 10 years has been approximately 570,000; the annual underground fatalities amount to approximately 2,000 and non-fatalities to 108,000, or a total of 110,000, which means that one out of every 5.17 employees ,or 19.3 per cent, receives an injury which results in either a fatality or a lost-time disability; this figure in a little over five years will reach a number equivalent to 100 per cent of all underground workmen. Against this is the record of many miners who have worked 25 years or more without a lost—time disability injury, indicating that coal mining is not necessarily productive of injury or death to workers.In the matter of falls of roof, it is found that 85 to 87 per cent of all fatalities occur at the working face, face of a room or entry, or in pillar work. It is at the working face that the greatest roof hazards are encountered, and when about 75 per cent of the underground employees spend approximately 90 per cent of their working hours at the face, it is logical that there is where injury is most likely to occur.Although the roof hazards may vary in different beds of coal, experience has proved that roof hazards can be successfully controlled in all coal mines, essentially regardless of the character of the roof if constant care and attention are given by the management and employees in applying the principle of safety. In almost every mining district some companies maintain an extremely low frequency rate of injury, whereas in the same district with essentially the same roof conditions the opposite is true.A study has recently been made of a number of reports upon fatalities in one district of one of the principal coal—producing States and it showed that 50 lives had been lost at 23 mines as the result of falls of roof or sides. These reports were made by the mine officials, safety engineers, and safety committees and an attempt was made to give both the cause and the person or factor responsible for the fatality. A summary of the items of responsibility is as follows:"

Feb 1, 1932

By L. C. IlsLey

A preliminary investigation has recently been made by the U. S. Bureau of Mines to determine whether or not the ordinary mine- type telephone is entirely safe in gaseous atmospheres . Two well known makes of mine- type phones were purchased for this investigation . It is not conceivable that the current necessary for talking over telephones could ignite gas . However , such phones are provided with efficient magnetos , and it was believed that danger might result from the ringing of the magneto . Again , while this type of phone has been designed to have a certain measure of dust and moisture tightness , evidently it has not been designed as an explosion- proof device . either with regard to cover joints and fastenings or strength of castings . Therefore , the problem was simplified . First it was assumed that owing to the construction of the telephones the gas would penetrate into their interior , and the question was to ascertain whether or not the gas would be ignited from the operation of the magneto .

Jan 1, 1922

By Edward P. Barrett

[Iron oxides, when reduced at temperatures below 900° form a dark gray substance, very porous bait otherwise in almost the same form as the original particles. In the temperature ire range of 1,000 to 1,100° the product is pertly sintered but still shows the outlines of the original particles. Those products are known as "sponge iron." At temperatures of 1,100 to 1,2000 the metallic iron begins to flow together and to a semifused, pasty, porous mass called a "bloom," which can he worked under a hammer to form a product similar to wrought iron; it contains slag inclusions and is too low in carbon to make steel. If the temperature is 1,300 to 1,300°, part of the iron will fuse enough to absorb more carbon. The dissolved carbon lowers the melting point and still more carbon is absorbed. The melted portion acts a flux for the unmelted metallic particles until the entire mass becomes a high-carbon fluid known as "cast iron." Sponge iron was probably the form in which the first iron was recovered from the ores. As early as the eighth century the Catlan forge3 developed into a low-shaft furnace known as the "high bloomary," in which iron eras produced in the form of a pasty mass. In 1340 the first blast furnace was built in Belgium. The greater part of the iron was made into wrought-iron blooms by crude puddling processes. Charcoal was used as the fuel until tie latter part of the 17th century when coke was used in England. In 1865 Bessemer built his first converter in. England, and within a few years the Siemen's regenerative open-hearth furnace was developed, also in England. Enormous expansion in the metallurgy of iron followed. The idea of "direct processes" for the production of iron arid steel has persisted throughout all this time. The production of steel from sponge iron has theoretical advantages over the present-day standard methods, and handreds of so--called "direct processes" have been proposed or tried during the past century.4]

Jan 1, 1929

By W. M. Myers

The U. S. Bureau of Mines conducted an investigation to determine the cause of the deterioration of Portland cement during storage and transportation , and to discover a means of preventing it . All available printed sources of information on this subject have been examined and a bibliography has been compiled . The subject has also been discussed with the leaders in the cement industry ; the present report is the result of their cooperation , and is based principally on information thus obtained . Deterioration of Portland cement during storage over any considerable period of time has long been noted ; closely related to it is deterioration of cement during transportation, which involves not only the time factor of storage but also exposure to varied climatic conditions . Deterioration in both cases is due to hydration of the cement by absorption of moisture from a humid atmosphere , or by exposure to actual rain-fall . After hydration cement possesses no cohesive power ; the degree of deterioration is directly proportional to the degree of hydration . The amount of deterioration of Portland cement during storage has been accurately determined in an investigation by the Structural Materials Research Laboratory , in cooperation with the Portland Cement Association . Cement stored in a shed in cloth sacks retained 80 per cent of its original strength after three months storage ; 71 per cent after six months ; 61 per cent after one year ; and 40 per cent after two years . The deterioration of Portland cement during storage and transportation was noted particularly in France during the World War . Information concerning cement used by the American Expeditionary Forces was furnished by Lt. Col. H. S. Spackman and Major E. C. Eckel , U. S. R. , who had charge of practically all matters concerning cement used by the A. E. F. The cement used by the A. E. F. came from the following sources : 42,000 tons was French , Swiss , and Spanish cements ; 120,000 tons was English cement ; 55,000 tons made in plants operated by the A.E.F .; 500 tons ( Not over) from America . Deterioration was most marked in cement from the first source .

Jun 1, 1922

By F. Garcia, J. Cervik

Recent advances in the commercial separation of gases using membranes have renewed interest in the possibility of applying this technology to the recovery of methane ( CH4 ) from mining operations . This Bureau of Mines report briefly reviews the history of the development of membranes for gas separation , the theory of how they work , and their application to the separation of methane from air and associated problems . However , methane -air mixtures are difficult to separate with membranes because the pertinent gas couples , 02 - N2 , 02 - CH4 , and N2 -CH4 , have poor separation characteristics , as indicated by their separation factors of about 3 or less . Even if these separation factors were substantially higher , there is doubt that methane could be recovered economically from the low concentrations in mine ventilation exhaust ( 2 vol pct or less ) . The exhaust pressures are not sufficient for adequate separation . The power cost of compressing the methane recovered . these mixtures would far exceed the value of New discoveries could make separation of gob hole methane - air mixtures practical . These mixtures have much higher concentrations of methane (from 30 to 100 vol pct ) ; however , for safety reasons , be limited to gob gas with 60 vol pct CH4 or more .

Jan 1, 1988

By Jürgen F. PH. D. Brune, Alex C. Smith, Michael A. Trevits

Underground coal mine fires in the United States continue to present a significant hazard to the safety and health of mine workers. The leading causes of mine fires include flame cutting and welding operations, frictional heating and ignitions, electrical shorts, mobile equipment malfunctions, and spontaneous combustion The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is conducting an in-depth program of research to address mine fire prevention, early and reliable fire detection and mine fire suppression and control technologies. One segment of the research portfolio is focused on remote methods for addressing coal mine fires. This research is important because remote methods represent the primary means of fighting a mine fire when conditions are too dangerous to fight the fire directly underground. Technologies under investigation include remote methods for installing ventilation control devices (mine fire seals) and remote methods for suppressing the fire using, the injection of inert gas, gas-enhanced foam and jet engine exhaust gases into the fire zone. This paper presents a summary of remote mine firefighting technologies used in the U.S. and the results of completed NIOSH research.

By R. V. Ramani, A. S. C. Owili-eger

System Size N,NX Number of blocks in x-direction M,NY Number of blocks in y-direction NTIMES Number of systems to be simulated LENGTH Length of medium WIDTH Width of medium THICK Thickness of medium NZONE Number of material zones Medium Properties XPERM(I,J) Permeability in x-direction at the point (i,j) YPERM(I,J) Permeability in y-direction at the point (i,j) PHI Medium porosity T Medium temperature Gas Properties PURL, VISCOG Gas viscosity Z Gas deviation factor BETAG Gas compressibility coefficient Initial and Boundary Conditions IBC Initial and boundary conditions NPRESS Number of specified pressures NQUAN Number of specified quantities FACEP Face pressure RESEP Reservoir pressure

Jan 1, 1974

California's coal resources are estimated to be 100 million tons, of which 50 percent is lignite, 40 percent subbituminous, and 10 percent bituminous. The occurrence of coal in California is rather limited and is restricted generally to the foothill regions of the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Significant quantities of coal have been mined in five areas: Ione in Amador County, Alberhill in Riverside County, Stone Canyon in Monterey County, CorralHollow in Alarneda County, and Mount Diablo in Contra Costa County. Most of the coal was rnined in the early 1900s and was used locally for fuel. Current mining operations are located in Amador County near the city of Ione. The two producing mines supply fuel to a mine-mouth co-generation power plant. The fuel coal is processed prior to burning to extract montan wax. Because California does not have primacy, coal mining in the state is regulated by the Office of Surface Mining's Albuquerque, New Mexico, Field Office.

Jan 1, 1992

By D. Cummins

This Information Circular presents a brief history of the lead-acid battery and describes ways to prevent serious injury from battery explosions when servicing and charging lead-acid batteries, particularly in the surface mining industry. The Mining Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, battery manufacturers, and the mining industry have all contributed information as well as recommendations for injury-free handling for this report.

Jan 1, 1980

By Kathleen M. Kowalski, Audrey Podlesny

The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) was administered and scored for 154 Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), U.S. Department of Labor, employees who serve as accident investigators for serious accidents and fatalities as part of their job duties. The subjects responded anonymously during a workshop on stress. The subjects consisted of randomly selected individuals, representative of locations across the country and representative of all mining commodities: coal, metal, nonmetal, stone, and sand and gravel. The Maslach Burnout Inventory assesses three aspects of experienced burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishments. The average results of the scores for each of the three subscales fell in the moderate range for the study group of MSHA accident investigators. The scores within the moderate range show that the subject population was at the lower end of the range for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, tending toward a lower burnout risk, while the group evidenced a lower sense of personal accomplishment in their jobs, indicating a higher risk for burnout. It is concluded that overall this group is at moderate risk for burnout, and the authors recommend follow-up with this population.

By Andrew B. Cecala

This U.S. Bureau of Mines report provides a detailed description of the Bureau-designed modified shearer clearer system. Engineering drawings are provided for all major components of this system. The modified shearer clearer system is a revised version of the original system and is intended to improve the ventilation around both cutting drums. The original shearer clearer technique was solely a dust control technique that has been effective in lowering shearer operators' dust exposures. The technique uses a series of water sprays that not only knock down a portion of the dust cloud but also act as small fans that move a substantial amount of air and keep the dust cloud from dispersing over the shearer body. The modified version is composed of two additional spray blocks for improved air movement around both cutting drums, thus lowering methane levels and the likelihood of an ignition. A laboratory study performed with the modified version in a full-scale longwall gallery resulted in a 73-pet reduction in methane concentrations at the shearer machine for both cut directions. The air-moving capabilities of the system provide more turbulence at the cutting drums and reduce methane levels.

Jan 1, 1994