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By Anthony Edey

It is a generally accepted and widely discussed fact that the world in general, and the United States in particular, face a shortage of energy at the present time which will become worse in the future. There is, however, no sign of a similar concensus as to the actions which would prevent or overcome this expected shortage. An immense variety of solutions has, however, been put forward, ranging from the purely political to the outer fringes of sophisticated technology. One resource which surprisingly is often only cursorily included in this discussion is the immense known petroleum reserve lying within the United States. When this subject is discussed, indeed, it is usually in the context of the improvements in production or new discovery rate that could be expected to result from possible politico-economic actions that would raise the real price obtained for domestic crude. This interest in the potential for improved domestic production is undoubtedly justified, but very little attention is normally drawn to the fact that even under the most favorable policy framework the majority of the oil that has been, or will be, discovered will remain in the ground due to the inherent limitations of production through surface wells.

Jan 1, 1979

By T. F. Tomb

on' January 6, ,1992, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) issued an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rule Making (ANPRM) for diesel particulate (DP). The ANPRM identified five areas where the Agency was seeking additional information to assist in the rule making process. These areas were exposure 'limits, risk assessment, consideration of other information, sampling and monitoring methods, and feasibility. The period for submitting information relative to the ANPRM closed July 10, 1992. Prior to issuance of the ANPRM, the agency was involved in conducting studies to evaluate sampling and control technologies and to gather information with respect to occupational exposures to diesel particulate in underground mining operations employing diesel-powered equipment. Since issuance of the notice, additional studies have been conducted to provide supplementary information in these specific areas. Results of these additional studies indicate that average DP levels in coal mines not using aftertreatment range from 0.9 to 2.1 mg/m3. Aftertreatment devices can reduce these levels by approximately 50 to 90 percent. Studies conducted in metal and nonmetal mines showed average DP levels ranging from 0.3 to 1.6 mg/m3.

Jan 1, 1994

By Don Muraoka

Soda ash, anhydrous sodium carbonate, is produced from underground trona deposits occurring in the Green River Sasin of Southwestern Wyoming. Stauffer Chemical Company of Wyoming, a jointly owned subsidiary of Stauffer Chemical Company and Rocky Mountain Energy Company mines the trona and processes it into high-purity soda ash. Stauffer Wyoming has been in operation since 1962 with a current production capacity of approximately 2.2 million tonnes (2 million short tons) per year of soda ash. The Refinery has five parallel operating trains utilizing the monohydrate process which is a series of chemical processing unit operations described below. Screening and Crushing the Trona The mined trona is brought to the surface in two counterbalancing ore skips. The ore is initially screened with Refinery feed, less than peagravel size material, entering the process while the oversize is conveyed to an outdoor stockpile.

Jan 1, 1984

By L. B. Sand

Zeolite ores and protores occur in extensive deposits in the western United States. A recent paper1 describes the general geology and mineralogy of these deposits and their geographical distribution. The zeolites are alkali-and silica-rich varieties of mordenite, erionite, chabazite, phillipsite, ferrierite, and clinoptilolite. The zeolites were formed primarily by the alteration of Tertiary pyroclastics and in some cases by the alteration of Tertiary siliceous flows. The altered pyroclastics are of principal economic significance. The volcanic ash and tuff were deposited in restricted basins where saline lakes developed. The pyroclastic layers often are of uniform thickness and macrotexture for miles from the center of the basin and interfinger with detritals toward the edge of the basin. Thus, in addition to unaltered volcanic glass, the gangue minerals in these deposits include some combination of primary minerals in the pyroclastics, alteration products of the glass other than the zeolite of interest, and detrital minerals. The gangue minerals include quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, opal, orthoclase, micro cline, montmorillonite, hornblende, calcite, gypsum, thenardite, and iron oxides. The presence of one or two other zeolites in the layer in some cases also is considered as gangue. There are no quantitative mineralogical descriptions of these deposits in the literature; this: study was undertaken to obtain this information. As the zeolites occur as single crystals, crystal aggregates, zeolite-glass particles and in cemented aggregates, a method of study was chosen which would give the size distribution of the zeolite in these types of association. For this reason dispersion of the rock was achieved with a minimum of grinding action. This excluded those zeolite ores, silicified by hydrothermal altera¬tion which require grinding. A relative index of the ease of disaggregation of the zeolite ores thus is obtained, but the technique does not give absolute size distributions of the zeolite crystals. Samples were selected for analysis which do not necessarily represent the best ore horizon, but do represent a spectrum of zeolite occurrences from significant deposits. They are mordenite, erionite, and phillipsite from Rome, Oregon, clinoptilolite and chabazite from Reese River, Nevada, chabazite (and var. herschelite) from Bowie, Arizona, erionite from Jersey Valley, Nevada, and erionite from Pine Valley, Navada.

Jan 1, 1967

By D. Tao

Coal is a major source of energy in the U.S. and more than 51% of the electricity used in the country is generated from coal. Coal cleaning prior to combustion is necessary and often accomplished using wet physical processes at coal preparation plants to remove impurities such as ash, sulfur, mercury. However, the resultant clean coal product still contains a significant amount of impurity due to the fact that impurities are not well liberated from coal particles ranging from several millimeters to inches in size at which wet cleaning processes take place. A cleaner coal product can be obtained if a cost-effective dry process is developed to further clean pulverized and thus better liberated fine coal at the power plants prior to its combustion. The benefit of such a process is a significant reduction in the cost of expensive post-combustion chemical cleaning processes such as flue gas scrubbing employed to meet the stringent environmental air quality regulations. In this study, a novel rotary triboelectrostatic separator (RTS) was investigated for its application to dry cleaning of fine coal samples acquired from the power plants in the state of Illinois. The pulverized fine coal contains well liberated ash and pyrite minerals and is an ideal feed to the triboelectrostatic separator for further cleaning without the use of water or any chemical reagents. The proprietary rotary triboelectrostatic separator (RTS) is characterized by an innovative high efficiency rotary charger, charger electrification, laminar air flow, and specially designed electrodes. Compared to existing triboelectrostatic separators, the rotary triboelectrostatic separator offers significant advantages in particle charging efficiency, solids throughput, separation efficiency, applicable particle size range, etc. Testing with several fine coal samples has demonstrated that this technology can significantly reduce ash content with a process efficiency similar to or better than froth flotation. Important process parameters such as charger rotation speed, injection and co-flow rate, feed rate were investigated for their effects on separation performance.

Jan 1, 2010

By V. L. Magnus

The text of this chapter was not received in time for printing.

Jan 1, 1979

By Dennis S. Kostick

Soda ash is the common name for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), an alkali compound that is the 11th largest inorganic chemical in terms of production of all domestic inorganic and organic chemicals, excluding petrochemical feedstocks. Despite that most people have never heard of soda ash, it is an important industrial compound used to manufacture glass, chemicals, soaps and detergents, pulp and paper, and many other familiar consumer products. Natural alkalis have been used by mankind for thousands of years; however, their industrial manufacture dates back to only the latter half of the 18th century. Natural deposits of sodium carbonate have been known as early as about 3500 BC, when the Egyptians used natural soda ash in making glass. They also mixed lime and soda ash to make sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) that was combined with silicate minerals found in the Sinai desert. This made a soluble silica, which when added to aluminum-rich silt from the Nile River, produced a silica- aluminate cement mortar with excellent bonding properties for construction. The Romans in the first century AD also used natural soda ash in glass manufacture but expanded its use medically for the treatment of colic pains and skin eruptions, and in the making of bread. Elsewhere, people used the ashes of wood to obtain their source of alkali. People learned over time that different types of wood yielded various ashes with different properties; therefore, various plants were burned specifically for their ashes. Ash from plants grown in salt-bearing soils (such as saltwort) and from kelp and other seaweeds, especially Spanish barilla, were so different from ashes obtained from other vegetation that it became known as soda ash (due to its sodium content) versus pot ash, a potassium-based alkali ash. About 13 t of barilla ashes produced 1 t of sodium carbonate and 14 kg of iodine as a byproduct. The difference between these two ashes was relatively obscure until Duhamel Dumonceau made the distinction clear in 1736. The word soda ash developed from common usage and is perhaps more well known today than its synonym sodium carbonate. One of the primary ores of soda ash is trona, a sodium carbonate-bearing mineral that's name is traced back to Arabic origin. Trona also is known internationally by other names such as urao (Venezuela), kaum (Nigeria), natron (from Greek nitron and Latin natrium), and szekso (Hungary). The beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe in the late 18th century soon put a strain on the availability of raw materials to meet consumer demands. One of these scarce materials was soda ash. Because of the Seven Years War with England and the Napoleonic wars with other parts of Europe, France could not obtain sufficient quantities of Spanish barilla or other supplies of vegetable alkali to meet the growing demand. Efforts were needed to synthesize soda ash. In 1775, the French Academy of Sciences offered a large prize of 2,400 livres to someone who could find an inexpensive method to make soda ash. In September 1791 at St. Denis, Nicolas Leblanc (1742- 1806), a French chemist, developed such a technique using salt, sulfuric acid, coal, and limestone. The French Revolution interfered with its development, and his patent and factory were confiscated with Leblanc receiving only token compensation. Napoleon returned his factory to him; however, Leblanc was not able to raise enough capital to reopen it, and he committed suicide in 1806. A small, but not particularly successful, Leblanc plant was established in England in 1814. It was not until 1823 when the process first became commercially successful in Liverpool, England. The process was introduced in Germany in 1843 and in Austria in 1851 (Harness and Coons, 1942). Soda ash production by the Leblanc process reached its peak of about 599 500 t in 1880, after which it began to decline as the Solvay process became more popular. The Leblanc process was used to a limited extent in Europe during World War I but had disappeared by World War II. The Solvay process, also known as the ammonia-soda process, was developed by Alfred and Ernest (1 838-1922) Solvay in 1861 based on a concept by Fresnel that had been known since 1811. For the next 50 years, the implementation of the idea evaded industrial chemists because no large-scale and economic means could be found to commercialize the concept. Although Ernest Solvay was unaware of the existance of an ammonia-soda concept, he solved the problems by utilizing carbonating towers. The Solvay process produced soda ash from salt, limestone, and coke, with ammonia as a catalyst. With a capital of 136,000 francs, the first plant was built by the Solvay brothers at Couillet, Belgium, in 1863 with production commencing in 1865. Synthetic soda ash production amounted to 1.5 tpd in 1866, but reached 10 tpd by 1872. They patented their use of carbonating towers in 1872 that had made ammonia-soda manufacturing a successful continuous process. Their second plant was built in 1872 at Dombasle, France. In 1874, the first Solvay plant in England was built at Northwich by Ludwig Mond, the namesake of Brunner Mond and Co. (formerly Imperial Chemical Industries), the company that currently operates the two English Solvay plants. In the United States, William B. Cogswell in February 1879 heard a presentation on the Solvay process and sailed to Europe to meet with the Solvay brothers to seek their support for using their process in New York. At first, the brothers were not interested; however, Mr. Cogswell was persistent and ultimately gained their support. The Solvay Rocess Co. was formed Sep. 2 1, 1881, and construction began immediately on the first Solvay plant at Geddes, near Syracuse, NY. The plant came onstream Jan. 10, 1884, and produced 11 180 t in its first year of operation. In 1910, rotary calciners were installed that increased capacity to 1 000 tpd. By 1930, plant capacity was up to 2 400 tpd. The facility remained in continuous operation for more than 100 years. By 1939. 10 Solvay soda ash plants were in operation in 6 States throughout the nation. The Syracuse plant was officially closed Jan. 6, 1986, with total shutdown completed by Feb. 1986. Ironically, this facility was the first Solvay plant as well as the last. Other than the first Solvay plant beginning in 1884, the majority of US soda ash supplies during the 19th century came from imports. The remainder of the US supply

Jan 1, 1994

By M. Karmis

According to international projections and future energy scenarios, coal will continue to be a prominent fuel for the next 25 years. In fact, in many regions around the world, coal is expected to dominate the electricity sector until the year 2030. At the same time, with instability and volatility of oil prices, coal is also positioned as an alternative feed stock for conversion into liquid fuels. Energy economists maintain that coal liquefaction is viable at crude oil prices of $35 or more per barrel. Depending on technology and coal composition, 1 ton of coal can produce 1 to 4 barrels of oil. Increased coal production and the expanded utilization of coal also raise environmental concerns regarding greenhouse gases and the problem of handling CO2. Carbon sequestration research, currently conducted in many parts of the world, has demonstrated considerable potential for C-storage in unminable coal seams. Such geologic storage, when possible, can also be integrated into an enhanced coal bed methane recovery process Can coal fuel power plants and industrial facilities, provide diesel and other liquids and, at the same, also be used as a medium for permanently storing CO2? This presentation will provide a global perspective on these questions and stress on the need to reconsider, or even redefine, coal as the fuel for the future.

Jan 1, 2006

By B. Hagemeyer

The trend to higher solids paper coating and to neutral/alkaline papermaking is causing an above average growth in the use of calcium carbonate as both a paper coating and a paper filling pigment. These developments are expected to continue well into the 1990s. Thus, calcium carbonate will account for a somewhat larger percentage of total paper pigment volume. Nevertheless, overall growth in paper tonnage coupled with an increase in filler pigment percentages will create a demand for larger quantities of other pigments as well. Kaolin will continue to be the dominant paper pigment by far, with continued growth though at a somewhat slower rate than calcium carbonate.

Jan 1, 1986

By P. D. Chamberlin

The interface between precious metal miners and gold refiners has been an uneasy interface over the years. The reasons for this interface and its apparent uneasiness and lack of trust include technical factors, economies of scale, and cultural differences. Technical factors take two forms. First, concentrates, precipitates and sponge produced at the mine site are notoriously difficult to sample and a non-representative sample can be the cause of misunderstanding and distrust. Dore, however, is homogeneous and can be correctly sampled and analyzed. Second, the technology and chemistry of fine gold and silver production is complex and quite different from that of dore production. Most mining companies are content not to be involved with additional processing steps.

Jan 1, 1986

By Michal Bukovansky

The Sahara Desert presents a serious obstacle to transportation route development in northwest Africa. Most highways and railroads are now limited to the coastal regions. A network of pioneer roads is the only connection between Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia on the north, with Mali and Niger on the south. A feasibility study has recently been made for a paved highway between these countries. Climatic, geologic, physiographic and hydrologic conditions will significantly influence the construction of the road. In order to reduce costs, special construction methods will be required. An outline of these I conditions and methods is presented as an example of an engineering geological investigation in desert conditions.

Jan 1, 1970

By Richard H. Olson

The following discussion will deal with the domestic talc industry only, inasmuch as the writer has had no experience in this field outside of the U. S. This is strictly a geological-mining approach; no attempt is made to assess in depth the effects which milling technology and marketing capability might have in determining the potential of any given talc deposit.

Jan 1, 1970

By M. B. Mooiman

It has recently been discovered that the pH at which gold can be extracted from cyanide solution with primary, secondary, and tertiary amines can be increased 2 to 5 pH units by the addition of modifiers. Under these circumstances gold can be extracted at pH values from 9 to 11, commensurate with the pH range found in cyanide leach liquors. The selectivity of the amines and amine/modifier combinations for AU (CN)[-2] over other metal -cyanide complexes is presented and discussed. In addition, potential applications for the solvent extraction of gold from cyanide solutions are discussed.

Jan 1, 1983

By Richard D. Lang

The paper provides an overview of the activities which culminated in the decision to construct a major diamond mine in the north west of Australia. It presents a broad summary of the geological, mining, processing and marketing work which has been required to bring the project to the construction phase. The implications of the development for the world industrial diamond market are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1985

By Carl P. Venzke

Mining lignite in the Gulf Coast often requires some interaction with shallow ground water system. Suggestions for determining ground water data and analysis requirements for regulatory compliance are given. Simple methods for estimating mine inflow seepage, ground water level declines, and changes in ground water chemistry, which may result from mining, are discussed. The mining of lignite often results in interaction with shallow ground water systems. An evaluation of the interaction is required as input to mine permitting and engineering. Your evaluation will proceed more smoothly and produce more meaningful results with some planning prior to performing your evaluation. The following are tips to consider in planning and carrying out a successful study.

Jan 1, 1982

By Mr. Peter J. Huck

Recent research has developed procedural control and geophysical test methods that can greatly enhance quality control in rock grouting. Confidence that design objectives will be made In construction requires that grout monitoring efforts be carefully designed and integrated into the overall project. Parameters that should be monitored are identified and documentation/review procedures that permit effective evaluation of the grouting effort are discussed.

Jan 1, 1980

By David L. Daniels

The U.S. Geological Survey has for many years been flying and compiling aeromagnetic surveys. The aim is complete coverage of the United States, about half of which is presently done. Colored aeromagnetic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 are published as the states are completed; Minnesota and Colorado have been published. Michigan, Iowa, Nevada, Utah, Maryland and Virginia are presently being processed. Some of the most spectacular data collected to date is from the Piedmont of the Eastern United States. I am going to discuss a preliminary aeromagnetic map of the Piedmont region between New York and North Carolina, where coverage is nearly complete. This map has been compiled from many surveys. Flight spacing over Piedmont rocks is 1/4 to 1 mile with flight elevation of 500 feet above ground. The spacing over the Virginia Coastal Plain and Valley and Ridge regions is wider at 2 - 3 miles. Much of the data in Virginia has been produced by the Virginia Division of Mineral Resources. The map is colored on a spectral color scheme with red for the higher intensities and violet the low intensities. Each color represents a 100 gamma interval. Some of the highest intensities are beyond the range of the 13 colors - these are left white. It is necessary, of course, to remove first, the Earth's main magnetic field. The Geological Survey uses the International Geomagnetic Reference Field or IGRF (Fabiano and Peddie, 1969). The use of color in aeromagnetic maps is not new, but then not common. We have found that colored aeromagnetic contour maps are more useful by far than the uncolored versions because they allow the user to instantly compare intensities in widely separated areas and visualize long wavelength anomalies even when numerous short wavelength anomalies' are superimposed. One tends to see only steep gradients on uncolored aeromagnetic maps, the broad anomalies being quite invisible. We feel that colored maps take the place of various mathematically derived maps such as second derivative or averaged maps.

Jan 1, 1973

By Bronson Stringham

The close area! relationship of Cretaceous or later intrusive porphyries to larger hydrothermal deposits of Pb, Zn, Au, fig, Cu, Mo, Hg,, and U of similar age in the Basin Range Province, was statistically shown in a recent paper (Stringham1) During the past year this study has been expanded to cover p11 of the larger hydrothermal deposits of similar nature occurring in the entire western United States. The sandstone type uranium deposits of the Colorado Plateau and Wyoming have been excluded since considerable controversy exists regarding their origin. The close relationship between intrusives in general and hydrothermal ore deposits has long been-recognized, but the association involving intrusive porphyry only, was suggested in 1954 when Sales concluded that the formation of porphyry may be an intermediate stage of activity between the development of granitoid rock and certain types of copper deposits. However: he applied this concept to only a few copper deposits. The relationship appears to be true also for a great majority of the hydrothermal deposits of the other metals mentioned above of Cretaceous and later age, at least in the western United States. This situation then leads to the conclusion then when exploring for similar types of hydrothermal deposits of the metals considered one may feel reasonably sure that if an intrusive porphyry of considerable size is. not present he may be facing much greater risk of finding an ore body than if a prophyry were presents Since, there are many intrusive porphyritic rocks which do not seem to be associated with hydrothermal deposit, it is believed that some distinct value can come from the recognition of intrusive porphyry which might be barren as well as the intrusive prophyry which might be productive This paper deals with that problem.

Jan 1, 1960

By Salvatore] [Parand

Deep well disposal is a much used and abused term which is the panacea for wastewater disposal in some minds and creates near hysteria in others. It can be the answer to a difficult waste disposal problem, or if improperly employed, can create more problems than it solves. My purpose in this presentation is to focus on the value and limitations of deep well disposal as expressed by New York State's experience and policies. To he sure, I feel a place for such practices docs exist if adequate safeguards are utilized. I shall give a broad brush approach to New York's legislative, geologic and operational concerns and speak briefly on some case histories. I shall not delve deeply into the technological details since I am not an expert in mining exploration or well drilling.

Jan 1, 1973

By R. L. Miller

"Miners worldwide use a tremendous amount of energy in producing finished minerals for the end user market. In accomplishing this goal, they incur energy costs that can range from 20% to 30% of the total cost of production, so there is fertile ground for cost savings. To unlock this huge value in cost reduction, energy analysis is the key and is broken into several segments: 1. Fuel analysis for power generation 2. Energy supply & demand 3. Opportunity cost for lack of power 4. Backup power 5. Power contracts 6. Energy efficiency 7. Renewable energy 8. Continuous energy management FUEL ANALYSIS FOR POWER GENERATION What is the first thing we evaluate when looking at power supply alternatives for the mining industry’s large power requirements? Is it 1) site, 2) engineering, procurement, and construction companies, 3) independent power producers, 4) turbine vendors, 5) grid connections, or 6) fuel supply, logistics, and infrastructure? In evaluations of power supply alternatives for mining companies with special emphasis in developing countries, there is one over-riding conclusion: reliable fuel supply drives the energy generation economic engine. Evaluating several different fuels including liquefied natural gas (LNG), natural gas, diesel, heavy fuel oil, and liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) among others, the best project outcomes are those where fuel supply, pricing, logistics, and infrastructure are given an extensive amount of time during the analysis stage. In an assessment of the twenty-year costs of generating power from multiple fuels, each fuel’s costs were placed into three separate net present value (NPV) buckets of: 1) capital, 2) operating and maintenance, and 3) fuel. Within a range of 65% to 85% for all fuels, fuel cost was the largest component of the NPV of the life cycle power generation costs. So if 65% to 85% of your life cycle power generation cost is one item, shouldn’t miners spend a corresponding amount of time in the analysis stage fully understanding this key determinant for a successful power project? In developing countries where power generation infrastructure may not exist or does not exist at the same level as is found in North America and Europe, fuel analysis becomes even more important. One of the key questions for fuel importation in developing countries is the draft at existing ports to allow larger vessels to dock at the jetty. Can larger ocean-going tankers dock at the port for off-loading, or is the port’s draft too shallow, thus forcing a Single Point Mooring (SPM) system or Conventional Buoy Mooring (CBM) system to be constructed at substantial capital expense? Once fuel can be imported, sufficient onshore storage capacity should exist, or must be built to off-load the entire fuel cargo from the larger ships. Additionally, the throughput capacity of the pipeline from SPM/CBM must allow a rapid unloading of the fuel from ship to shore to eliminate steep demurrage costs for the project."

Jan 1, 2017