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By C. R. Van Hise

Introduction.............29 The Three Zones of the Lithosphere ..30 Zone of fracture............31 Zone of flowage............ 31 Factors influencing depth at which flowage occurs.. 32 Zone of combined fracture and flowage.. 33 The Water-Content and Openings in Rocks....36 Condition of rater in the zone of fracture.. 36 The openings in rocks...........38 Size and number of openings..... 40 Ore-deposits derived from zone of fracture..45 The source of underground water......... . 47 The cause of the flowage of underground water..47 Belts of underground circulation.. 51 Upper belt of underground circulation.. 51 Lower belt of underground circulation.. .... .52 Capacity of water for work in the lower belt of underground circulation........... 53 Movementsof water in the lower belt of underground circulation. 54 The preferential use by water of large channels.. 60 Physico-Chemical Principles Controlling the Work of Under ground Waters..........62 Chemical action............63 Underground aqueous solutions..64 The relations of solution and temperature..... 65 The relations of solution and pressure..66 Precipitation........... 67 Precipitation by change in temperature..68 Precipitation by change in pressure..69 Precipitation by reactions between aqueous solutions.. . 69 Precipitation by reactions between liquid solutions and solids. 70 Precipitation by reactions between gases and solutions. and solids............71 The General Geological work of Underground Waters.. . 71 Division of the zone of fracture into a belt of weathering and a belt of cementation............72

Jan 1, 1901

By William R. Chedsey

ALTHOUGH few changes can be reported in educational methods at the mineral technology schools during 1940, other events have taken place of direct interest to, and that will have a profound effect upon, mineral industry education on the United States. In the erection of new buildings, some notable changes have been made on the campus, The U.S. Bureau of Mines Experiment Station at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, was dedicated on May 20. The construction and equipment of this building cost between $300,000 and $400,000. It will be the general headquarters for the metallurgical division of the Bureau and will have a pronounced effect upon the mineral industries research program at the University.

Jan 1, 1941

By George M. Fowler

EVERY year it becomes more difficult to find new mining districts and new ore deposits. Nearly all of the important discoveries so far can be attributed to surface manifestations overlying the ore deposit. In the future greater skill will be necessary to find ore deposits that give little or no indication of their presence. Mining geology is making progress by broadening its attack upon mineralized regions, by including in its investigations studies of the relation of physical-chemical processes to ore precipitation and various phenomena that heretofore have not always been looked upon as major factors in the problems. Such, for example, are petrographic peculiarities that will help determine structure, aspects of strata or formations favorable or unfavorable to structural deformation or mineralization, and renewed studies of chert and dolomite. This broadening attack is not necessarily being directed to the study of large areas, but rather by doing extremely detailed work in three dimensions in relatively small critical areas to find the key to the structure, reasons for the manner of rock deformation, composition and texture of the rock, and other con¬trolling factors in the larger areas.

Jan 1, 1935

By Francis P. Sinn

LOW prices have made 1938 a difficult year for the zinc industry of the world. Particularly in the United States, output had to be radically curtailed to bring production into line with consumption. Despite these unfavorable conditions, some additional plant construction is contemplated. In Jugoslavia, through co-operation with the Government, Trepca Mines is lo build a zinc plant to produce 10,000 metric tons annually, the plant to be ready for operation in July, 1941). Cerro de Pasco is proceeding with its plans for an electrolytic plant in Peru. A pilot plant, to be ready next summer, is under construction. In eastern Canada an electrolytic plant is planned in Quebec to treat concentrates from Yoranda and other mines but no defi-

Jan 1, 1939

By James E. Little

(Wilkes-Barre Meeting, June, 1911.) OF the several extensive deposits of brown iron-ore in Cuba, including those of Mayari and Moa, that of Mayari was the first to be systematically explored, and was selected as the scene of the first operations in the development of this class of ore. Construction-work, begun in the spring of 1907, involved the building of 16 miles of standard-gauge railroad and two large double-track inclines, the installation of mining-machinery, a nodulizing-plant, power-plant, shops and shipping-facilities, and the dredging of an extensive basin for deep-draught vessels. Unusual weather-conditions delayed the completion of portions of this work so that the entire plant was not in operation until December, 1909. The ore in its natural state contains a very large percentage of water, which increases to some extent with the depth below the surface. Near the surface it is red in color, with somewhat granular structure. The color gradually changes with depth, finally reaching a bright yellow. The consistency also changes towards, the bottom to a clay-like, sticky mass. The relative proportion of red and yellow ore is quite variable; in some places the yellow reaches close to the surface, while in others the red extends almost to the underlying serpentine. Fig. 1 is a map showing the Mayari division of the Spanish-American Iron Co. The ore lies on an irregular plateau about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide at the widest point, entirely covered with pine trees and brush, which grow directly on the ore. The elevation at the northern extremity, which is approached by the railroad, is about 1,700 ft. above sea-level. At the southern end the general elevation is about 2,000 ft. Ore is removed by means of scraper-bucket excavators and steam-shovels, these machines loading into special standard-guage, side-dump steel cars of 100,000 lb. capacity. A short haul

Aug 1, 1911

By Howard N. Eavenson

AN analysis of the bituminous coal situation by an authority who traces the production, mining, safety, markets and labor trends in comparison with other fuels. BEFORE 1918 the production of coal experienced a steady growth, with slight recessions in ouput in only twelve years (1837, 1841, 1852, 1855, 1861, 1874, 1876, 1889, 1894, 1905, 1909, 1914), and in each of these cases the loss was recovered in the following year and the increase continued. In each decade the output was doubled. Prices, while not high, allowed some profit. In 1918 during World War I, an output of 580 million tons was reached and with the exception of 1923 this total was not again reached until 1942, in World War 11. Losses of output in this period were much greater than ever before; in 1932 the total was 270 million tons less than in 1918 or 1923, and the loss after 1923 was not recovered until 1942. The greatest output was 631 million tons in 1947.

Jan 1, 1950

By D. Harrington

ANNUAL or necessary inspections and investigations of coal mines for various purposes were made possible through the Federal Coal Mine Inspection Act of May 7, 1941, which authorized entry to the Secretary of the Interior through the Bureau of Mines. Primary object of these inspections is to obtain information pertaining to health and safety conditions. Among the purposes for which the data are to be used, are annual reports to Congress, the publication of inspection reports, and the compilation and publication of statistics. The act states that inspections and investigations shall be made by employees of the Bureau of Mines, who shall co-operate with other bureaus of the U. S. Department of the Interior, as well as with the official mine-inspection, safety cr health agencies of the several states and territories. The act specifies that a coal-mine inspector shall have "the basic qualifica-

Jan 1, 1946

By Alan M. Bateman

Before World War II we proudly considered that we were the nation of all the world most richly endowed in mineral resources. We knew it was no accident that those countries abundantly supplied with mineral resources became the great manufacturing nations, and the politically and militarily strong ones; and that our own great industrial cities sprang up where coal and iron met. We all reallized, especially we of the mining profession, that the energy of fuels and the solidity of metals spelled industrial growth and in turn industrial might and that other nations came to regard mineral self-sufficiency as one of the chief goalsof economic nationalism.

Jan 1, 1949

By H. Leslie Bullock

From aluminum to zirconium, the quantitative preponderance of quartz as a gangue material is well recognized. lf this material is to be efficiently removed, its variations must be understood. Variations with temperature are especially important. Too little attention has been given to the thermal polarization of quartz. Under closely controlled conditions, electrostatic upgrading is very reliable. For efficient separation, contact charges must be fostered and charges due to radiation, surface coatings, or thermal polarization avoided. This paper lists thermal transition points of quartz and shows their effect on actual separations. Simple separation tests with all factors except temperature held constant are recommended for determining transition points. With silica making up more than 27% of the earth's crust, its oxides comprising more than 59% of all igneous rocks, and quartz accounting for most of the main free oxides, the mining engineer is in constant contact with quartz, which may occur as a valuable mineral to be purified or, far more frequently, as a gangue material to be removed as completely and economically as possible. As a means of effecting such purification or removal, dry beneficiation is becoming more and more desirable owing to local water scarcities, wet waste disposal problems, or freezing conditions. One method that has been gaining particularly rapid acceptance is electrostatic beneficiation, or the separation of dry free-flowing materials by means of opposite surface charges, differences in potential, or differences in conductivity. Electrostatic beneficiation dates back to the 1870's, but only in recent years have newly developed methods and apparatus and a growing knowledge of solid-state physics widened the field for its economical application. Because the term "electrostatic beneficiation" has been rather loosely used in the literature, it has come to include both electrostatic and electrodynamic procedures. Attracting type separators, however, in which oper- ation is based on differences of surface charge or potential, are truly electrostatic, because the separation occurs in a substantially static field set up between oppositely charged surfaces. Separations with this type of equipment may occur at potentials as low as 1000 v and seldom require potentials as high as 30,000 v. In the new contact charge dielectric separators1 the variation in charge is produced by continuous contact and separation of the particles in the moving feed stream and these charges are fostered by the use of non-conducting support and feed surfaces and by handling the feed in the form of streams of appreciable depth. This favors uniformity of feed and allows higher production rates. The distinctive surface charge differences are set up on the separation of the particles according to Coehn's Law,2 which states that equal and opposite charges are generated on the separation of any two materials in contact and that the substance having the highest dielectric constant will be positively charged. The basic contact charge concept is reliable, but all electrical charges are transient and modified by the electrical conditions of the surroundings. Pyro-electric, photoelectric and radiant effects may modify or totally destroy the contact charges necessary for efficient separation, or contact with conducting surfaces may neutralize them. Such hostile conditions must be carefully guarded against, since they have led to many costly failures in the past. The most consistent difference in surface charges to insure good separation is produced by repeated uniform contact and separation of particles in the moving stream. The thickness of the feed stream possible with this method reduces the effect of contact with the supporting surfaces, but as some contact is inevitable, the best results may be assured by having the dielectric constants of the supporting surfaces between the dielectric constants of the substances to be separated. In general, the hard smooth surface of quartz makes it an ideal substance for electrostatic separation from most minerals. For instance, with calcite, starting with a feed containing 1.9% acid insolubles, one can produce a concentrate containing 0.30% acid insolubles with a tailings containing 21.7% acid insolubles and a yield of 92.8%. The color can be held at 92 or above and the tint at 1.7 or lower. Working with specularite iron ore, laboratory work has given a concentrate of 68.8% Fe., with an iron unit recovery of 96.7%. Excellent results are also in pros-

Jan 1, 1969

By AIME AIME

PLANS for the Semi-centennial Meeting have almost reached completion, although in any undertaking of such magnitude a few changes are always to be expected at the last moment. As worked out up to the time of going to press, the program of the meeting is shown below. The headquarters will be the Irem Temple, in Wilkes-Barre.

Jan 1, 1921

By Burk, Hugh A.

AT THE inception of the cyanide process and its adaptation to the practice of gold and silver metallurgy much difficulty was experienced in applying it to auro-cupriferous ores, both in economy of treatment and recovery of the gold from solution. The presence of copper in the ore effected a high chemical consumption of cyanide during treatment, and in the solvent solution, it retarded the precipitation of the gold on zinc shavings. The coating of the copper on the zinc shavings presented even worse difficulties than the increased cyanide consumption as most ores contain a small amount of copper. This interference of copper led to the use of other precipitating methods and attempts to recover the cyanide which was consumed during ore treatment. Of the other methods used, electrolytic precipitation was the most practical until a better understanding of the application of zinc shavings and zinc dust developed. In September, 1905, a patent entitled, "Method for Recovering Precious Metals from Solution," was granted to Isaac Anderson and Michael Scanton. This method is adaptable to precious metal ores containing a small percentage of copper but has never been extensively used or perfected. The process has

Jan 1, 1925

By AIME AIME

THE graduating class whom I am particularly addressing are going into the world at least a month earlier than normal, because of the war. You have been free to choose your work. You have chosen to be mining engineers. The principal importance of your engineering education to date has been in teaching you how to think and how through books to have ready access to the accumulated experience of previous generations, as well as the current experience of the day. You should by now have acquired something of the engineering point of view, the open skeptical mind. the power to observe, experiment, and draw conclusions, form theories and test these by further experiment, and weigh the inherent probability of conclusions drawn by others. I am asking you today to consider certain facts and the conclusions I am drawing from those facts.

Jan 1, 1942

By F. T. Havard

(Canal Zone meeting, November, 1910.) I. INTRODUCTION. THE present truce in litigation between Western smelting and ranching interests gives opportunity for a summary of the results achieved by metallurgists in condensing fume and de-acidifying furnace-gases. In the absence of complete records of past experiments, there has been a good deal of unnecessary duplication of attempts and' failures. Yet, especially under the recent policy of our large corporations, looking to the economic recovery of the values of by- and waste products, original and, in some cases, effective measures have been developed by American metallurgists. In the case of Bliss vs. the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., the Montana Supreme Court, recognizing the progressive efforts made to render the flue-gases innocuous, and the value to the community of the smelting company's operations, refused to hamper its work, and returned a verdict in favor of the defendant. In the trial, the experimental firms of the company in the so-called "affected region" were proved to be thriving perfectly, showing that immunity was guaranteed to vegetation and stock by the wide distribution of the sulphurous acid gas in the dry air of Montana. Indeed, L. S. Austin has proved that by the time the fume is 4,000 ft.. distant from the stack, the percentage of sulphurous acid has been diminished from 2.28 to 0.00045; and Angus Smith has shown that rain must contain 40 parts per million of free acid before vegetation is affected. The arsenic in the stack-gases is but a very small part of the original content of the ore, of which 80 per cent. and over is rejected in the concentrator and furnace waste-products or recovered in the flues. Nevertheless, neither the peace in Montana nor the armistice

Aug 1, 1910

By AIME AIME

General Local Committee.-John Fritz, Chairman; A. B. de Saulles, Vice-Chairman.; R. M. Bird, Treasurer; Henry S. Drinker, Secretary; Robert H. Sayre, E. P. Wilbur, Charles M. Dodson, Abraham S. Schropp, E. M. McIlvain Archibald Johnston, A. B. Fichter, C. G. Convers, W. A. Wilbur, Garrett B. Linderman, Frederick Conlin, George Pettiuos, Albert Brodhead, Garrett L. Hoppes, M.B. Cutter, H. J. Seaman, C. A. Matcham, B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., A. L. J. Queneau, Geo. R. Elder, Eldridge Wilbur, William H. Chandler, Mansfield Merriman, Joseph F. Klein, William S. Franklin, William Esty, Joseph AN'. Richards, Howard Eckfeldt, John D. Irving. Transportation Committee.-H. J. Seaman, C. A. Matcham, B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., A. B. Fichter, A. L. J. Queneau, Henry S. Drinker. Hotel Committee. -Garrett B. Linderman, Charles M. Dodson, W. A. Wilbur, Garrett L. Hoppes, Albert Brodhead. Steering Committee.-William S. Franklin, William Esty, John D. Irving, R. M. Bird, the members of the Tau Beta Pi Society of Lehigh University. Committee on Meetings - William S. Drinker, Joseph W. Richards, Howard Eckfeldt. Entertainmment Committee.-W. A. Wilbur, E. M. McIlvain, Archibald Johnston, A. B. de Saulles, G. G. Convers,.A. L. J. Queneau, Garrett B. Linderman, Frederick Conlin, George Pettinos, Garrett L. Hoppes, Henry S. Drinker, William S. Franklin, Eldridge Wilbur, Robert M. Bird, Secretary. The opening session was held at 8.30 p.m., Wednesday, February 21, 1906, in Gymnasium Hall of Lehigh University, which had been tastefully decorated with flags and bunting. Dr. Henry S. Drinker, President of Lehigh University, and Secretary of the General Local Committee, called the meeting to order, and welcomed the Institute to the Bethlehems, where its first meeting, after its organization in May, 1871, at Wilkes-Barre, was held in August, 1871.*

May 1, 1906

By George I. Adams

PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS. PERU is divided into three regions-the coast, the sierra, or high mountainous region, and the a montana," or forest region of the Amazon basin. The Coast.-The coast is an arid region. No rain falls excepting in the extreme northern part, which borders the Gulf of Guayaquil. There is, however, a slight precipitation in the form of mist (garua), which occurs on the coast hills during the so-called winter months. The aridity of the coast is due principally to the antarctic or Humboldt ocean-current, which, being cold and having a temperature lower than that of the land, absorbs rather than produces vapors. The coast mists occur during the season when the land is relatively cold. Near the Gulf of Guayaquil the antarctic current diverges from the coast, so that in the Tumbes valley and adjacent country the conditions in the summer months are such as produce rains. In the remaining valleys of the coast, agriculture is made possible only by means of irrigation, and is accordingly very limited in extent, although rich and varied. In the northern and south-central portions of the coast, plains extend inland from the sea, while in the southern part there is a coastal plain separated from the Pacific by a range of coast hills. Between the northern and south-central plains, as well as between the south-central and southern, the foothills of the sierra descend to the seacoast. The Sierra.-The sierra embraces the high land dominated by the lofty cordilleras of the Andes. In the southern part of Peru there are two cordilleras, the western and the eastern, which enter from Chile and Bolivia respectively, and inclose between them the Titicaca Lake basin. To the north of Lake Titicaca these cordilleras unite in the knot of Vilcanota, south of Cuzco. From this knot three cordilleras, known as the western, the central, and the eastern, extend to the northward, reuniting in the

Jan 7, 1908

By J. W. Mills

This paper's aim is to demonstrate, by reviewing findings and conclusions of earlier authors and through recording and interpreting the outcome of recent laboratory study of the ores, that the ores around the Gem stocks are metamorphosed equivalents of common siderite-sulfide ores far from the stocks, as was first proposed by Hershey (1912, 1913). That is, all the ores probably have the Precambrian age of 1250 million years reported by Long et al. (1960). Those near the Gem stocks, however, were extensively metamorphosed in Cretaceous time during the emplacement of stocks so their resemblance and relation to other veins in the district are camouflaged.

Jan 1, 1985

By Theodore Marvin

FOLLOWING the receipt of questionnaires from many parts of the world, the Aviation Committee is completing a review of the use of aviation in mining and petroleum operations. The summary of this study should be available at the 1937 Annual Meeting in New York City, at which time several papers will be presented on specific application of aerial geologizing. From the reports received, there is little question that this air branch of mining is here to stay. Of course, the transportation of personnel arid material continues to merit attention but it is in the division of aerial geologizing that flying is finding its widest, most technical application.

Jan 1, 1937

By WILLIAM BOWIE

IN most human endeavors a knowledge of the terrain is essential to the effective carrying out of projects, but no line of work is more dependent on maps than theoretical and applied geology. Maps of a kind do exist for all of the area of the United States, but most of them are crude affairs and of little use in engineering, planning, and scientific research. Topographic mapping in the United States was initiated on a national scale by the U. S. Geological Survey and the organizations that were merged in its creation to make base maps for geologists. Their work could not be effectively done then and cannot be effectively done now without maps that accurately delineate the earth's surface. The distribution of the rock masses that contain valuable mineral bodies, or that by their intrusion brought them into existence, is the first step in a study of the mineral resources of the nation. This work requires three-dimensional maps, that is, topographic maps on which the land forms are shown by contours.

Jan 1, 1938

By Michael J. Callow

THE PROPERTY of Mount Isa Mines, Ltd., is located at Mount Isa, Northern Queensland, Australia, at roughly 20" south latitude. It is 600 miles from Townsville on the east coast, the port for Mount Isa, 1200 miles from Brisbane and approximately 1600 miles from Sydney in New South Wales. Living conditions in the camp, though wild and crude at the commencement of building, are now excellent and little has been left undone to provide comfort and attractiveness. The climate being warm and dry, many of the buildings are built on posts, 8 to 10 ft. off the ground, with spacious screened-in verandas. Club houses, stores, school, hospital and ice plant have all been provided by the company as well as modern conveniences, such as running water, shower baths, electric lights, septic tank arrangements, tennis courts and amusement grounds.

Jan 1, 1932

By Elmars Ence, Harold Margolin

The Ti-Fe and Ti-Fe-0 systems were re-examined because of the controversy regarding the existence of Ti2Fe, and to consider all available data points to the existence of Ti,Fe. The Ti-Fe-0 system contains two ternary compounds: E, corresponding to Ti2Fe; and y. SEVERAL authors have investigated the constitution of titanium-rich alloys of the Ti-Fe system. The most extensive study of titanium-rich portions of the Ti-Fe system was by Van Thyne, Kessler, and Hansen,' who investigated this system up to 50 pet Fe and used the highest purity materials available for their alloy preparation (iodide titanium was used for alloys up to 20 pet Fe). According to Van Thyne et al., phase relationships in the region of investigation are governed by phases a,ß, and TiFe. No evidence of an intermetallic compound Ti,Fe was found. although earlier. works by Laves and Wallbaum,' and Duwez and Taylor' reported its existence. Rostoker's study on the occurrence of TilX phases" confirmed the findings of Van Thyne et al. Rostoker proposed that the compound Ti Fe found by Duwez does not exist but is actually a ternary compound, Ti1Fe3O, originated by inadvertent oxygen contamination. The partial isothermal section of the ternary Ti-Fe-0 system as reported by Rostoker' seems to confirm this explanation. In the course of phase diagram work conducted at New York University, however, certain irregularities were observed to be associated with ternary systems of the type Ti-Fe-X. The ternary phase 6, observed in the systems Ti-Fe-Mo' and Ti-Fe-V." was found to be structurally identical to the com-pound Ti2Fe as reported by Duwez and Taylor, and to Rostoker's compound Ti1,Fe2O. Since the amount of oxygen possibly present in the Ti-Fe-Mo and Ti-Fe-V systems could not account for the observed amounts of the compound, it appears that the d phase in these systems is not Ti,Fe,O. On the other hand, considering the amounts of the 6 phase, particularly in the Ti-Fe-Mo system, the location of the phase was uncertain. It was felt that the introduction of the Ti2Fe phase would alleviate some of the inconsistencies of the two systems. Because of the uncertainties relating to the phase Ti2Fe, or Ti1Fe2O, it appeared worthwhile to re-examine the Ti-Fe and Ti-Fe-O systems in the vicinity of these compounds with highly sensitive metallographic techniques and with X-ray methods. Experimental Procedure Alloy Preparation—For the study of the binary system four alloys were prepared, containing 26.9 (30 wt pct), 34.0 (37.5 wt pet), 41.2 (45 wt pet), and 56.3 (60 wt pet) atomic pet Fe, and for the ternary Ti-Fe-O system 18 alloys were prepared in the composition range of 1.6 to 16.9 atomic pet 0 and 24.3 to 55.7 atomic pet Fe. The materials used for the Ti-Fe alloys were iodide titanium (99.98 pet Ti, 0.002 pet 0) and Ferro-vac-E iron (99.95 pet Fe, 0.0052 to 0.0072 pet 0). For the Ti-Fe-O study the materials used were sponge titanium containing less than 0.06 pet 0, Ferrovnc-E iron, and Baker's analyzed TiO2. The nominal weight and atomic percentages of the ternary alloys prepared are shown in Table I. Melting—Charges of 10 to 15 g were melted in a nonconsumable arc furnace in argon atmosphere according to the technique described elsewhere.'" Since there was practically no weight loss through the various stages of melting and oxygen losses have not been observed previously, it appeared justifiable to use nominal composition for interpretation of data. Iodide titanium control buttons, of the same mass as the Ti-Fe charges, and melted under the same conditions, were used to check hardness pickup during melting. A hardness increase of 2 to 3 Vhn was found. Heat Treatment—The specimens were annealed in quartz capsules under argon. To avoid contact between the specimen and capsule material all specimens were wrapped in titanium sheet. The annealing times are given in Table 11. The attain-

Jan 1, 1957