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By Thomas Adair

Moderator-Thomas Adair is now a tunnel consultant with Perini Corp., Spring Lake, N.J. He has had 40 years experience in tunnel and shaft-sinking work in both soft and hard rock, as well as subaqueous rock. He has used moles in various locations and has traveled around the world studying the problems. SOME BRIEF COMMENTS ON "MOLES" by Thomas Adair We of the Perini Corp. have been, over the past 15 years, in the forefront of the battle to develop the mechanized miner. We have contributed much to pioneer, develop, and promote the use of the mining machine. Our money and talent have not been spared in this effort. However, we are sorry to say that as of the present time (1968), at least from the economic stand- point, this effort has not been very rewarding. But, I must say to those who are presently involved in the work of building mining machines, do not be discouraged. There is money in it. We of Perini Corp. know because we put it in there. It has been estimated that during the next 15 years, some $20 billion will be spent on underground excavation; more than 13 thousand miles of sub- surface tunnels will be excavated throughout the nation. An aggressive, properly structured research and development effort would produce, within the next five or ten years, a better excavation technology and improved boring system capable of reducing present costs drastically, with a resultant great saving. The time for this effort is now, but where the enabling money for this effort will come from, I have no idea. Machine builders should be encouraged to design and develop a shield- type boring machine capable of continuous mining through varying types of ground or rock by incorporating the possibility of making minor modifications such as change of bit type, power package, etc. Such a machine could

Jan 1, 1970

By Edward Schuster

As THE time allotted is short, we can present only a general idea of the oil laws in the Latin-American republics, as a supplement to Bulletin 206 of the Department of the Interior compiled under the direction of J. W, Thompson of the Bureau of Mines and entitled "Petroleum Laws of All America." We shall not discuss the European colonies in Latin-America nor the island republics. As to the countries discussed, we shall attempt to give the main features of such special petroleum legislation as has been adopted prior to the early part of this year; where no special petroleum" laws exist, we must look to the mining codes for light on the petroleum policy. As the laws and regulations for the extraction of the metals are often difficult of application to, and are lacking in many essentials for, the petroleum industry, it is best for persons or companies desiring to enter, on . a large scale, into the petroleum exploration and development of countries not having special petroleum legislation, to obtain a concession contract from the executive of the country under consideration, and to have the concession approved by the congress. If this concession, which would then be a special law, contains nothing contrary to the constitution of that country and does not infringe on vested rights of third parties, it should be reasonably safe. If in such country there is some doubt as to whether the petroleum subsoil is owned by the nation or the private surface owner, only public lands should be covered with the concession. Guatemala is the only republic in the group that discriminates directly against foreigners. Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela require waivers of diplomatic protection.1 Colombia requires foreigners to agree to be bound by its alien law. , In addition,Mexico makes it unlawful for foreigners to acquire direct ownership of real estate, including mines, within a zone of 50 km. along the coasts and one of 100 km. along its land

Jan 7, 1922

By Hans Von Höfer

Apart from the hypothesis of a cosmic origin (which failed of acceptance because it was not adequately supported by facts), the only important controversy concerning the origin of petroleum has been, for a long time, between the advocates of inorganic and of organic origin respectively. Each of these theories has had a long history of development, and is still being perfected, under the influence of two causes: (1) the increasingly extensive and thorough study of the oil-fields (of which new examples are periodically discovered and opened); and (2) the progress of synthetic experiments devoted to this question. Moreover, the advance in our physical and chemical knowledge of the properties of this peculiar natural product has necessarily modified all criticism of conflicting views. I. The Hypothesis of Inorganic Origin That the nation of an inorganic origin of petroleum, first set forth by Berthelot in 1866, and afterward ingeniously developed and formulated by Mendelejeff, should thus have proceeded chiefly from chemists, is quite natural; for the question was one of possible chemical processes in the earth's interior, and of imagined chemical reactions to be verified by ex-periment. Hypotheses of this kind were suggested by many chemists, of whom two, P. Sabatier and J. H. Senderens, may be specially named by reason of their highly interesting chemical experiments. Among geologists, Mendelejeff's hypothesis was received at first with much interest and favor; for it rested on the assumption of a central terrestrial mass of iron carbide, and the geologists had good reasons for adopting that assumption. Yet comparatively few of them attempted to furnish geological proofs of the hypothesis: the majority either silently believed in it, or for one or another reason rejected it altogether. An apparently weighty support of Mendelejeff's view was furnished by the American, G. F. Becker, who found in the oil-regions of the United States important and abnormal disturbances of the isogons of terrestrial magnetism, and inferred that in these regions the central iron mass must

Jan 1, 1915

By P.V. Roundy, G.R. Mansfield

Public lands in Florida were first withdrawn from entry by President Taft on July 2, 1910, as a conservation measure because of their possible phosphate content. The reserve thus established was subsequently modified by further withdrawals and by restorations, so that on Jan. 1, 1934, it contained 66,796 acres, of which only a small part had been definitely classified. The reserved land was in scattered parcels, ranging from less than 40 acres to 320 or more, distributed in many counties. For administrative purposes and for final disposal of any of the numerous parcels, mineral classification of the land is legally necessary. In 1934 and 1935 the United States Geological Survey, under two successive grants from the Public Works Administration, prospected some 83 tracts of these lands in Polk County, comprising in all about 3300 acres, and six tracts comprising 240 acres in Citrus and Marion Counties. The tracts in Polk County were all in the so-called land-pebble field and the others in the hard-rock field. The Survey field party was under the direction of P. V. Roundy, from whose unpublished report the material in this paper is largely taken. The foreman of the prospecting crew was J. H. Wingate of Zephyrhills, Fla. The individual tracts were identified through the cooperation of the General Land Office, by transitman Hugh B. Crawford. This prospecting work fitted well the classification adopted for Public Works projects in general: it could not be done on any considerable scale under the Survey's usual appropriations; it gave employment to unemployed labor; and it may be expected ultimately to repay the Government in royalties more than the cost of the exploration. Commercial, Prospecting Methods Commercial methods of prospeeting for phosphate in Florida have been briefly described by Mansfield.' In the hard-rock field, where the floor of the phosphate deposit is extremely irregular, it is customary to drill a.:

Jan 1, 1938

A SERIES of papers on strategic and otherwise important mineral products was prepared some ten years ago under the joint auspices of the Committee on Foreign and Domestic Mining Policy of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America and the Committee on Industrial Preparedness of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. These papers were later published in a joint volume entitled International Control of Minerals (1925). Amongst them was one on manganese. The Subcommittee on Manganese prepared its paper in two forms. One was intended for inclusion with the series above referred to and approached its subject more particularly as an international problem. The other dealt more definitely with manganese as an element in the problem of national defense. This last was first written under date of January 24, 1924 as a confidential report, for and at the request of the War Department. It was later released and published, in slightly modified form, as a separate pamphlet by the Industrial Preparedness Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. After the lapse of eight years, in view of the vital position of manga-nese in the problem of industrial preparedness against a war emergency, the War Department made a request to have the conclusions of 1924 reviewed and brought up to date. To comply with this request the manganese subcommittee was reconvened (with a somewhat changed personnel) and exhaustive studies were once more made of the entire subject of manganese. A new report, with specific recommendations, was submitted to the War Department in February, 1932. This second report is now herewith released for publication. Certain specific conclusions and recommendations as expressed to the War Department are omitted. Otherwise the report stands as prepared and submitted by the manganese subcommittee of 1931. The members of this committee were: C. Minot Weld, Chairman, R. C. Allen, Arthur S. Dwight, J. W. Furness, D. F. Hewett, Reno H. Sales, Theodore Swann and Scott Turner. ARTHUR S. DWIGHT, Chairman, Committee on Industrial Preparedness.

Jan 1, 1933

By P. V. Roundy, G. R. Mansfield

Public lands in Florida were first withdrawn from entry by President Taft on July 2, 1910, as a conservation measure because of their possible phosphate content. The reserve thus established was subsequently modified by further withdrawals and by restorations, so that on Jan. 1, 1934, it contained 66,796 acres, of which only a small part had been definitely classified. The reserved land was in scattered parcels, ranging from less than 40 acres to 320 or more, distributed in many counties. For administrative purposes and for final disposal of any of the numerous parcels, mineral classification of the land is legally necessary. In 1934 and 1935 the United States Geological Survey, under two successive grants from the Public Works Administration, prospected some 83 tracts of these lands in Polk County, comprising in all about 3300 acres, and six tracts comprising 240 acres in Citrus and Marion Counties. The tracts in Polk County were all in the so-called land-pebble field and the others in the hard-rock field. The Survey field party was under the direction of P. V. Roundy, from whose unpublished report the material in this paper is largely taken. The foreman of the prospecting crew was J. H. Wingate of Zephyrhills, Fla. The individual tracts were identified through the cooperation of the General Land Office, by transitman Hugh B. Crawford. This prospecting work fitted well the classification adopted for Public Works projects in general: it could not be done on any considerable scale under the Survey's usual appropriations; it gave employment to unemployed labor; and it may be expected ultimately to repay the Government in royalties more than the cost of the exploration. Commercial, Prospecting Methods Commercial methods of prospeeting for phosphate in Florida have been briefly described by Mansfield.' In the hard-rock field, where the floor of the phosphate deposit is extremely irregular, it is customary to drill a.:

Jan 1, 1938

By W. B. Price

AT the New York meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers held in February, 1926, W. H. Bassett and J. C. Bradley presented a paper entitled "Exudations on Copper Castings."' The purpose of the present paper, as the title suggests, is to call attention to somewhat similar phenomena which the authors have encountered in brass and bronze. From a study of the examples given, a more-or-less speculative theory of "inverse segregation" is advanced. Protuberances on Admiralty Brass In the rolling mill of the Scovill Manufacturing Co., there have been found quite commonly bars of certain alloys which had a sort of shaggy roughness on the surface due to slight metallic protuberances. No special attention was paid to these until some bars were found on which these protuberances were heavy enough at the bottom of the bars to produce a blistered appearance. A sample of the protuberances was milled off the surface of the bar illustrated (Fig. la) and upon analysis was found to contain 66.66 per cent. copper, 4.02 per cent. tin and 0.03 per cent. lead, whereas the average composition of the bar was 70.21 per cent. copper, 1.21 per cent. tin, and 0.01 per cent. lead. A sample of the shaggy-rough protuberances at the very top of a bar was also analyzed and was found to contain 2.45 per cent. tin, indicating that it was probably of the same origin as the blistered areas. These results were not entirely unexpected for previous analyses of this alloy had revealed that the surface was richer in tin than the rest of the bar. This, of course, is contrary to what we would expect from a consideration of the equilibrium diagram and has been called "inverse segregation." Fig. 16 is a cross-section of a bar through the protuberances on the surface. It reveals that there is a decidedly different structure through the raised areas and seems to indicate that the bar originally solidified

Jan 1, 1927

By O. A. Knight, Helmut Muller-Stock

The suppression of the austenite-martensite transformation that can be brought about by the addition of certain alloying elements, such as manganese or nickel, to plain carbon steel has been known for a long time, especially since Guillet's investigation at the beginning of this century. The extent to which the critical range is lowered depends upon the percentage and nature of the special element added. First the Arl point is lowered gradually, then at a certain percentage a sudden lowering to about 300" C. occurs. The addition of still larger percentages of the alloy may result in lowering the Ar, point to room temperature or below, in which case the steel remains austenitic at room temperature, especially after rapid cooling. The effect of alloying elements of this general type on the lowering of the transformation temperature is well illustrated by Sauveur(lJ$ in his Fig. 281a, reproduced here as Fig. 1. This type of curve is characteristic of both manganese and nickel though it requires about 21/2 times as much nickel as of manganese to produce the same result. The influence of nickel in retarding the transformation of austenite into the lower transition constituents is due to its lowering of the critical range of the steel, which is also well illustrated by Sauveur'l) (after Osmond) in his Fig. 284, reproduced here as Fig. 2. Scott('" presents a diagram illustrating the effect of manganese on the Ac3 and Ara points which is strikingly similar to the diagram above referred to in Fig. 2 concerning the effect of nickel. Lowering the critical range has the effect of increasing the viscosity, or, rigidity, of the alloy at the time when it is undergoing its transformation, which greatly slows down the transformation reaction velocity, and this, in turn, makes it easier to suppress, wholly or in part, the transformational changes. Reaction rates are normally much slower at low

Jan 1, 1934

By D. Harrington

One of the main functions of the United States Bureau of Mines is to obtain and disseminate information that will promote safety in and around mines, and the health and safety of employees engaged in mining. Serious health and safety conditions arising out of contamination of air in metal mines by dust, fumes from explosives and fires, and absorption of oxygen by timber and other causes, led the Bureau of Mines to cooperate with the United States Public Health Service in the study of dust occurrence and ventilation in metal mines in various parts of the country. A. J. Lanza, of the U. S. Public Health Service, and Edwin Higgins, mining engineer of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in 1915, made a detailed study in the mines around Joplin, Mo.; their reports1 are now available. In 1916, 1917, and 1918, a similar study was made in the Butte, Mont., region by Doctor Lanza and D. Harrington, mining engineer of the Bureau of Mines; the reports of this investigation will be available soon. In 1919, the study was continued in some of the Arizona mines by D. Harrington, of the Bureau of Mines, and G. E. McElroy and R. A. Koronski, of the U. S. Public Health Service, the underground work being completed in June, 1920; these reports are now being prepared for publication. In the spring of 1920, the scope of the work was extended, with D. Harrington in charge as supervising mining engineer, and short studies were made in the mines of the Coeur d' Alenes in Idaho and around Oatman, Ariz. It is hoped soon to extend the work into mines of California, Nevada, Colorado, Michigan, and Minnesota, and ultimately to other states should the mining companies be willing to coöperate. While the coöperation of the mining companies is necessary, the companies are put to practically no expense other than supplying a guide to accompany the investigators underground, the length of time spent

Jan 1, 1922

By William H. Emmons

The problem of the metalliferous veins has always been an outstanding one in the science of ore deposits. In recent years interest has been stimulated by Spurr, who maintains that veins have consolidated from magmas that have densities as great as the densities of ordinary rocks. Lindgren published a noteworthy paper1 in 1926, in which he supports the theory that veins are deposited chiefly by hot waters. Lindgren's paper was discussed by Singewald, Spurr, Kemp, Anderson, Colony, Bateman, Porter and others. The discussion, in the main, was centered on the interpretation of fragments that are included in veins. This paper also treats the problems of fragments in veins and includes a reply to a review by Spurr2 of a bulletin by Larsen and myself3 published by the United States Geological Survey on the geology and ore deposits of Creede, Colorado. Mineral veins containing fragments of the wall rock are common. At many places the fragments are completely isolated, one from the other, and are entirely surrounded by vein matter. It has been stated that the vein matter around the fragments was heavier than the fragments and that the latter were floated in a magma. J. E. Spurr, who is the leading advocate of this hypothesis, 4 urges that normal mineral veins were deposited by solutions heavy enough to float fragments of the country rock, and it is mainly on this relation that he bases his theory that veins are deposited by solidification of magmas. If it can be shown that vein-forming solutions have a specific gravity greater than rock (2.77), one is justified in regarding them as true mag-matic solutions. It is shown later in this paper, however, that at Lead, S. D., water not more highly concentrated than ordinary drinking water is depositing vein matter around fragments of schist and of steel in such a manner that the fragments are completely isolated and completely surrounded by the mineral cement.

Jan 1, 1928

By E. R. Hoskins

Results of a primary stress measurement investigation conducted on the 1100 copper ore body of the Mt. Isa mine, Mt. Isa, Queens., Australia, are presented in this chapter. The investigation started in September 1965, after discussion with the engineering staff at Mt. Isa, and consisted of both underground or in-situ tests at Mt. Isa and laboratory tests on Mt. Isa rocks and stress measurement techniques at the Australian National University in Canberra. Underground stress measurements were made in and adjacent to the 1100 copper ore body. The primary stress measurement site was in J 32 west crosscut on 14 Level. Approximate coordinates on the mine grid are 3000 north, 1650 east. The vertical depth below ground surface at this point is approximately 2180 ft. Some preliminary measurements were made in M 30 west crosscut on 13 Level, coordinates 3000 north, 2000 east, depth beneath the surface approximately 1990 ft. Additional flatjacks were installed on 11 Level in L 30 west crosscut, coordinates 3000 north, 2200 east, and depth beneath the surface approximately 1580 ft. All of the sites were in rock that from a mining engineering viewpoint must be considered extremely sound. The 13 and 14 Level crosscuts were approximately 14 ft on a side and nearly square and the 11 Level crosscut was approximately 10 ft on a side. All of the crosscuts had been standing open for several years and no artificial support of any type was necessary. Extraction openings hundreds of feet on a side have been made in this mine in similar rock and these have remained open also without additional support (see Davies 1 for a recent summary of mining techniques and conditions). The geology of the Mt. Isa mine has been most recently described by Bennett.2 Briefly, Mt. Isa is a silver-lead-zinc and copper mine in a series of Precambrian siltstones, shales, and bedded carbonates that strike north-

Jan 1, 1972

C. H. MATHEWSON, New Haven, Conn. (written discussion *).-In a recent discussion of Dr. Jeffries' paper on tungsten,1 J. C. W. Humfrey,2 after taking exception to certain of the author's ideas relative to the cohesion of A and C metal, expresses the opinion that future research is likely to develop a method of preparing tungsten possessing "mechanical properties in line with those of other metals." The present paper by Dr. Jeffries begins with a determination of comparative properties of tungsten, copper, and iron, in which much dissimilarity is apparent, and ends with a coherent explanation as to why much of this dissimilarity is natural and inevitable, thereby supplying theoretical means for visualizing the changing properties of metals in general, once certain fundamental facts are known. The author's reasoning is primarily from the standpoint of the amorphous theory and his principal achievement is the development of an idea f differential cohesion according to conditions of temperature, etc., between A and C metal (which was first plainly suggested by Rosehain and Ewen, in their papers on Intercrystalline Cohesion of Metals) along with associated ideas, so as to give us a really useful working theory. I have come rather reluctantly to believe in the amorphous theory, or some theory admitting a modification of the ordinary crystalline phase so as to permit differential properties within the conglomerate, mainly because in no other way does it seem possible to account for observed changes of properties with temperature, etc. The very best illustration f the competency f the amorphous theory in this respect is seen in this and other recent papers by the author. All fractures through normal or healthy metal that have been preceded by deformation are supposed, by Dr. Jeffries, to take place either through the amorphous phase or at certain boundaries between amorphous and crystalline material; his reference to fractures, both members of which are similar in appearance and do not reveal a preexisting coarse-grained structure because of a coating of amorphous metal, indicates his preference for the former interpretation.

Jan 5, 1919

By C. H. Hitchcock

The puiblication by the Institute of a small geological map of the United States calls for an explanation of its peculiarities. The title intimates that it is intended "to illustrate the schemes of coloration and nomenclature recommended by the International Geological Congress." By way of further explanation it is said to be "based, by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey, upon the map published in his Fifth Annual Report, the portions not colored in that map being here supplied from other sources." The map referred to was prepared by W. J. McGee, and in the text of the report containing it he has given a list of the authorities employed in the compilation. The scheme of coloration used for the map was the one proposed by the Director, in the Seeond Annual Report, for the publications of the United States Geological Survey, which differed materially from those employed by the older American geologists. Because of the increasing diversity in the particular colors employed to represent rocks by geologists in different countries, and of the existence of very dissimilar schemes of nomenclature, it seemed best to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its Buffalo meeting in 1876, to appoint an international committee of geologists, who should consult together, and, if feasible, to call an International Congress to discuss these subjects. The proposition met with favor, and the meeting was called. The first session was held at Paris, in 1878, when geologists were present from twenty different countries. Once organized, the Congress has perpetuated itself, enacting regulations for its conduct, choosing the French language for its medium of communication, and arranging for the compilation of a geological map of Europe upon which the perfected schemes of coloration and nomenclature will be delineated. The American Association maintains a standing committee to represent it at the international sessions, and to report their proceedings. Sixteen countries were represented at the second Congress, at Bologna;

Jan 1, 1887

By Charles Colcock Jones

In the winter of 1902, while occupying the position of mining and examining engineer for the Mountain Copper Co., Ltd., of Keswick, Cal., I had .occasion to discuss with the General Manager, among other things, the question of the enormous waste of sulphur in smelting cupriferous pyrite ore, and to cast about for means to utilize this waste or to render the fumes innocuous to vegetation. The decreasing rate of production of California farms, the consequent need of fertilizers, and the opportunity thus offered to utilize large quantities of sulphuric acid in the manufacture of superphosphates naturally brought the subject to the practical and commercial side of phosphates. I was informed that the company had made efforts to find phosphates in the West, without success. I advised as a start placing inquiries for phosphate deposits on the Pacific coast in the current mining journals. This was done, with the result that in January, 1903, from an advertisement in the Mining and Scientific Press we got track of a deposit in Rich county, Utah, through T. J. Wilson, of the Southern Pacific railroad in San Francisco. As soon as snow in the mountains would permit, in May, 1903, I undertook an examination of the property, with the result of recognizing the importance of the find, in spite of its lack of facilities for transportation at a commercial figure. On June 15, 1903, I concluded my report by saying, "This may be one of the world's deposits of phosphates." On Nov. 17, 1903, I concluded my report for the season in the following words : " I have now no hesitation in saying that I believe the Carboniferous formation so largely developed in the Wasatch mountains of Utah and the mountains of the Great Basin will prove to be one of the greatest storehouses of phosphoric acid in the world." Early History. In the summer of 1897 R. A. Pidcock, a mail carrier of Ogden, Utah, while on a prospecting trip camped on " 12 mile," a branch of

Jan 1, 1914

By William Crane

OPERATORS of diamond drills have long been familiar with thread-like markings or riflings on cores but apparently have given but little serious thought to the conditions that are responsible for their production. The opinion generally held by those who have observed the phenomena is that the riflings are produced directly or indirectly by vibration, but so far as the writer is aware no systematic attempt has been made to demonstrate the fact. A careful search through the literature on diamond-drilling practice has been rewarded by only one reference to such markings of cores. J. N. Justice1 writes, "Of the peculiarities met with in the core, I will mention only one. The core from the "H" drill, at about 360 ft. came out rifled and pentagonal. The change from the circular to the pentagonal was sudden, and for 9 ft. this structure was maintained, when suddenly it returned to the circular. I have not been able to find any one who can explain the cause of this change of form. The drill men marveled at it and suggested vibration, six-stone bits, and several other hypotheses Which need not be mentioned." The writer became interested in the matter of core riflings some 10 years ago while in the Flat River lead region of Missouri, where many remarkable examples of "rifled" cores were observed and collected. Since that time similar phenomena have been observed in various localities throughout the United States and Canada, and samples have been gotten together illustrating a large number of variations in form. After a careful study had been made of the material at hand it seemed desirable that certain data should be obtained from the experience of others regarding the normal action of diamond drills in forming cores, portions of which are occasionally rifled, before an attempt was made to draw any conclusions as to their cause.

Jan 5, 1916

There are not many data about early coal production in Kentucky, but some legislative reports, early geological studies and occasional newspaper articles have left some figures. The earliest production with any authentic record is that of Lee County, the coal being boated down the Kentucky River to Frankfort. While never a large producer, this county has the longest record in the State. Production is recorded in several of the western coal counties in 1820, and in several others a few years later. The early production in Greenup County was for the iron furnaces operating there. Clay County had a large salt output in the early days and this required a large output, for those days, of coal; the amount of fuel is based on the quantity of salt. It will be noticed that several counties on the Ohio River produced considerable quantities of coal before the Civil War, much of it being consumed by the river steamers. Since the end of the war, these counties have never occupied the relatively important position they had prior to that time. All of the coal produced in the eastern mountain counties moved out of them by water before the war, and during that struggle nearly all mining was stopped. The growth of the railroads after the war greatly reduced the river traffic from these counties, and in some cases it was never renewed. The coal shipped from Lawrence County prior to 1861 all moved by water; after that date there was no production excepting for local use until 1879, and since that time, all shipments have been by rail. Some of the early railroad reports have been helpful in reporting shipments, but for the early years very few of them can be found, and after about 1879 the quantities reported cannot be identified as to origin. Pres. J. B. Hill, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, furnished all of the data available for his line. Sources of data are shown on Table 61; other figures are estimated. A list of early Kentucky mines is given in Table 13.

Jan 1, 1942

By H. R. Shidel

THIS paper summarizes the results obtained from the preliminary cementing of wells in an effort to cut off the bottom water. The object of this work was two-fold: (1) To prevent the oil sand from becoming flooded. (2) To plug off bottom water, thereby preserving the individual well and reclaiming production. Valuable suggestions and help have been given by the following named: Messrs. Kyle and La Velle, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines; Magnolia Petroleum Co.; Freed Oil and Gas Co. The cementing work was carried out under the personal supervision of L. J. Snyder. In an unpublished paper on the "Water Problem in the Augusta Field," S. K. Clark reaches the following conclusions: (1) That the great amount of water present is bottom water, occurring in the Varner sand, the main producing or the 2500-ft. horizon. (2) That the only striking connection between structure and water is in the area of the marked fault on the Ralston, E. C. Varner, and F. Varner leases in sections 8, 9, 16 and 17. (3) That the oil occurs in porous streaks, generally separated by fine-grained, well cemented sand, which is barren. Possibly two, or three such pay streaks may be found. That under a pay, fine-grained sand occurs, which is presumably barren at the time of drilling, but soon reveals water. The writer takes partial exception to the last point, because well defined shale, slate, lime, or hard sand breaks have been encountered in a great many cases, separating the pay streaks under which water is often found. This is not an invariable occurrence, as cases have been noted when the oil has been followed immediately by water in the same stratum. In an effort to overcome the water menace, the following methods of plugging were tried: (1) Plugging with wood, lead, and limit plugs. (2) Plugging with sand pumpings.

Jan 10, 1918

By George R. Mansfield

Interest in the reserves of phosphate rock in the United States and their proper conservation has recently been aroused by hearings held in different parts of the country by the "Joint Committee to investigate the adequacy and use of phosphate resources of the United States." This committee was appointed within a few days after a Presidential message to Congress on the same subject, dated May 20, 1938, and began to function almost immediately. Hearings were held in Washington, D. C., Pocatello, Ida., Wilson Dam, Ala., Knoxville, Tenn., and Lakeland, Fla. The resulting testimony, when published, comprised a volume of 1182 pages.l At the earlier hearings held in Washington and Idaho the seeming disparity between the great reserves of the West and the smaller reserves in the East led to some suggestions as to the desirability of curtailing or even prohibiting the exportation of phosphate rock so that eastern producers, becoming alarmed, cooperated in making available for the use of the committee information hitherto closely guarded. This information has provided an opportunity for new studies by official agencies, for a restatement of the reserves of Florida and Tennessee, and for some modification of figures for the Western States. The writer, representing the Federal Geological Survey, was given free access to the Florida material and has prepared for publication a report,² some features of which are summarized in this paper. The Tennessee material was studied by Dr. G. I. Whitlatch,³ of the Tennessee Division of Geology. Prof. J. Stewart Williams,* of the Utah State Agricultural College at Logan, has published a recent study of the phosphate resources of Utah and the writer has given some further study to reserves of western phosphate from the viewpoint of including material of lower grade than that hitherto considered. Technologic advances in the phosphate industry must be credited with a large share in the expansion of reserves by making available for

Jan 1, 1942

By George R. Mansfield

Interest in the reserves of phosphate rock in the United States and their proper conservation has recently been aroused by hearings held in different parts of the country by the "Joint Committee to investigate the adequacy and use of phosphate resources of the United States." This committee was appointed within a few days after a Presidential message to Congress on the same subject, dated May 20, 1938, and began to function almost immediately. Hearings were held in Washington, D. C., Pocatello, Ida., Wilson Dam, Ala., Knoxville, Tenn., and Lakeland, Fla. The resulting testimony, when published, comprised a volume of 1182 pages.l At the earlier hearings held in Washington and Idaho the seeming disparity between the great reserves of the West and the smaller reserves in the East led to some suggestions as to the desirability of curtailing or even prohibiting the exportation of phosphate rock so that eastern producers, becoming alarmed, cooperated in making available for the use of the committee information hitherto closely guarded. This information has provided an opportunity for new studies by official agencies, for a restatement of the reserves of Florida and Tennessee, and for some modification of figures for the Western States. The writer, representing the Federal Geological Survey, was given free access to the Florida material and has prepared for publication a report,² some features of which are summarized in this paper. The Tennessee material was studied by Dr. G. I. Whitlatch,³ of the Tennessee Division of Geology. Prof. J. Stewart Williams,* of the Utah State Agricultural College at Logan, has published a recent study of the phosphate resources of Utah and the writer has given some further study to reserves of western phosphate from the viewpoint of including material of lower grade than that hitherto considered. Technologic advances in the phosphate industry must be credited with a large share in the expansion of reserves by making available for

Jan 1, 1942

ONE of the fundamental reasons for the extreme rapidity with which the Porphyries developed after the trail had been blazed at Bingham was the amenability of the deposits to prospecting and proving of the ore either by churn-drilling or by diamond-drilling. At Ray churn-drill data formed the principal basis for early calculations of ore reserves; and in 1913, Inspiration floated its first bond issue for $6,000,000 on the strength of the estimate of 45,000,000 tons of sulphide ore assaying just over 3 per cent copper. The money was obtained in spite of the fact that no one ever had actually laid eyes on more than a minute fraction of that ore. The customary method of developing a copper deposit before the Porphyry era had been to sink shafts or drive adits and then to follow and expose the veins or lodes with horizontal and vertical underground workings-drifts, crosscuts, raises, and winzes. The excavated material sometimes was sampled in bulk; but always the walls of the openings would be channeled at intervals to obtain small samples representative of the ore left in place. This process was known as "blocking out" ore. It was costly and it required a great deal of time to prove the existence of immense tonnages. The early development at Utah was done in this way; likewise, at Miami. This fact helps to explain why only 3,000,000 tons of ore was reported as being developed when J. Parke Channing wrote the report on which the original Miami financing was based in March, 1908. Fortunately, his 3,000,000 tons averaged 3'per cent copper. At Ray, Seeley W. Mudd estimated 3,000,000 tons of ore in June, 1908, developed principally by underground working; but by the end of 1909, Henry Krumb was able to report 50,000,000 tons as the fruit of a little more than a year of churn-drilling.

Jan 1, 1933