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By David R. Maneval, H. B. Charmbury

At the turn of the century, iron and coal were the keys to industrial prosperity. At that time, Pennsylvania was the leading mineral producer in the Country, producing 200,000,000 tons of coal in a typical post-World War I year. Close to 90% of the Nation's energy was generated by coal. Today, coal accounts for but 22% of the energy generated, leading to a drastic reduction in Pennsylvania coal output. In contrast with the post-World War I days, 1964 figures showed a drop in production to 93,846,480 net tons. This huge decrease has created a serious economic problem in a state so much dependent on the coal industry. Along with the reduction in coal production, employment has dropped considerably through these years (the number of miners alone has gone from 280,011 to 43,149), thus causing a heavy burden of supporting the unemployed on the taxpayers. As far back as 1939, coal operators and economists saw the problems on the horizon and the need for improvement. Realizing that research was a way to improve and stabilize the industry they demanded legislative action. The Legislature reciprocated with a small grant to The Pennsylvania State University with the provision that each State research dollar be backed with one from the industry. This initial grant laid the foundation for the further growth in coal research.

Jan 3, 1966

By Kenneth S. Ritchie

TOO often, many foremen; superintendents, managers, and executives, "The Bosses" of the oil and mining industries, do not fully realize: (1) How much personal actions '.on the job" may reduce their effectiveness in getting work done; and, (2) The importance of harmonious relations with their fellow men. Today. these qualities of personality in the people entrusted with the positions of responsibility are more important than ever with the shortages of labor so critical in vital war production. Likewise, many engineers do not fully realize that their work is essentially executive in character; i.e., other people do the actual labor. Without their help. the engineer's work would not be done. A clearer appreciation of this fact would increase their interest: (1) in the nontechnical aspects of their work. and, (2)in their relations with others, particularly the individuals in their own organization. Consequently, these engineers would be more successful in equipping themselves for greater responsibilities and increased remuneration.

Jan 1, 1944

By W. B. Plank, A. C. Callen

WAR and normalcy do not walk hand in hand, whether it be in industry, the educational field, or in the daily lives of individuals. Schools and departments offering curricula in mineral engineering have been seriously disrupted, beginning with 1942 and reaching a low during 1944. Selective Service regulations and voluntary enlistments have effectually stopped the flow of college-trained men into the mineral industry, and the flow into the colleges is little more than a dribble. The year just closed has been a most serious one for our institutions. Until March many of our faculties had been kept reasonably intact because of the large training programs of the Army and Navy. Although the number of

Jan 1, 1945

By Chas. B. Dudley

A Discussion of the papers of Mr. James Gayley, on "The Application of the Dry-Air Blast to the Manufacture of Iron," and of Mr. J. E. Johnson, Jr., on "The Physical Action of the Blast-Furnace," by Messrs. Charles B. Dudley, R. W. Raymond, J. E. Johnson, Jr., William F. Mattes, James Gayley, David Baker, John Birkinbine and F. E. Bachman. (Washington Meeting, May, 1905.) CHAS. B. DUDLEY, Altoona, Pa.:-Pam not a blast-furnace man, and this always puts me it a disadvantage because I cannot go into the details of the making of iron and steel. I have not the experience, and have to take the statements of other people, so what I say regarding the subject of this paper is not in the sense of an expert. When I first heard of Mr. Gayley's experiments, I said to myself, " I fear they will result in failure, since, apparently, Mr. Gayley has forgotten one chemical fact, namely, that carbon does not combine with oxygen in the absence of water-vapor." This fact which was so astonishing when it was first brought out some years ago, and which those who are interested may find in the Journal of the Chemical Society of London, for 18S5, page 349, and 1894, page 611, led me to think that the drying of the air would be a mistake. The general subject of the influence of water-vapor on chemical action is a large one; but the special point in which we are for the moment interested, namely, the influence of water-vapor on the combustion of carbon, was especially treated by Mr. H. B. Baker, in the papers referred to. Apparently, however, as the result of Mr. Gayley's experiments, we are to learn that the amount of moisture still left in the desiccated air is sufficient to secure perfectly satis¬factory combustion. In thinking over Mr. Gayley's paper, it occurred to me that there were two alternatives, either of which might be chosen, namely, we might dry the air as Mr. Gayley does, or possibly we might, in a very much simpler way, simply saturate the air at a constant temperature, and thus get uniform working and

Sep 1, 1905

By H. I. Aaronson, W. L. Winterbottom, G. M. Pound

On the basis of a statistical thermodynamic treatment of the data of smithz2 on the activity of carbon in austenite, a Darken and smith23 deduced that the interaction energy, wy, between carbon atoms occupying nearest-neighboring interstitial sites is repulsive. Aaronson, Domian, and pound 24 (ADP) have applied two different statistical thermodynamic analyses to the same data. One analysis, a composite of the treatments of Darken and Smith,23 Speiser and Spret-nak," and Kaufman, Radcliffe, and Cohen,26 primarily takes account of the positional entropic effects of wy in dilute solutions. The other, due to Lacher 27 and Fowler and Guggenheim," is also applicable to more concentrated solid solutions. The equations which both analyses produce for a,, can be rearranged so that, when In a,, is plotted against the appropriate function of the carbon content of the austenite, the plot will have a slope of unity when the correct value of wy is employed. Since no other constant need be simultaneously evaluated in order to make this determination, ascertaining the most probable value of wy from Smith's data on the bases of these analyses was an elementary problem in least-squares statistics. ADP demonstrated that the wy's obtained from both analyses vary with temperature in a statistically significant manner. McLellan, Gerrard, Horowitz, and sprague 29 (MGHS), on the other hand, have recently made a new statistical thermodynamic study of a,, and have concluded from this study that wy is independent of temperature. The equation which they derived for a,, is: where 0 = ratio of the mole fraction of carbon atoms to that of iron atoms, z = number of sites from which occupancy is excluded by the presence of a carbon atom and the repulsive character of its interaction with nearest-neighboring carbon atoms (z = zb in Ref. 24), and x = a geometric parameter taking account of overlapping of the exclusion shells of nearby carbon atoms. z is 1 when wy = 0 and 13 when wy = Q. For a given value of z there is a definite value of X . In the absence of an equation connecting z and X, MGHS computed geometrically the value of x at several integral values of z; x increases from 0.47 to 8.67 as z is increased from 2 to 5. MGHS fitted Eq. [I] to the a,, data of Ellis, Davidson, and Bodsworth30 at 925° and 1050°C and to the data of smithz2 at 1000°C. Confining z to integral values in the range 4 to 6, and also somewhat restricting AG, the values of z, X, and AG were sought which would minimize the average root mean square percent deviation, D, of the calculated a,, values from those obtained experimentally. Finding that D was almost always smallest when z = 5, they concluded that z is independent of temperature. Since:23, 26 where R = gas constant and T = absolute temperature, and w,, was considered to be similarly invariant, this statement cannot be strictly true. The temperature range employed, however, was small and the interval between the values of z tested was sufficiently large so that the results could still be consistent with a constant The statistical treatment of the a,, data applied by MGHS is clearly quite approximate. Since more than three values of a,, are available at each temperature, z, and X, and AG have actually been over deter mined, rather than underdetermined as their treatment implies. In order to make more complete and exact use of the a,, data, we shall employ the Legendre Method of Least Squares, as described by Whittaker and Robinson. This technique permits conversion of the overdetermined system of equations produced by the substitution into Eq. [I] of the available pairs of a,, and 0 data at a given temperature into an even determined system. Solution of the latter system yields the most probable value of each of the three constants. This procedure will allow a statistically rigorous test to be made of the conclusion drawn by MGHS in respect of the temperature dependence of In order to obtain linear iiequations of conditions" from Eq. [I], the exact values of the three unknown constants are replaced by G/RT = =/RT + y, where z, i, and aG are estimated values of the constants. This allows the conditional equations to be written in the form:'l where fi -f6, i, =/RT) = the right-hand side of Eq. [I] for a given pair of ayi and values. When applied to Eq. [I], these relationships become: The i equations of condition are reduced to three "normal equations" in the manner discussed by Whittaker and Robinson. The normal equations are then solved for a, ß, and y. Both of these operations are most conveniently performed by means of the computer technique of Winterbottom and Gjostein.32 This technique was used iteratively until the value of 0 (the most sensitive of the three correction factors) became 10.01. (Until they became small, a, 8, and y

Jan 1, 1969

By H. D. Hoskold

I. Instrument-Parts and Implements. Cross-hairs ; Stadia-measurement; Fineness of Graduation ; Cylindrical Gradu ation ; Nonius; Vernier ; One Vernier or two ; Leveling-Screws ; Troughton & Simms' Shifting Tripod-Head ; Hoskold's Shifting Tripod-Head; Hoskold's Extensible Tripod ; Electric Lamp ; Plumb-lines; Chain. II. Instruments. Compass (Mine-compaes of 1518, Compass of 1541, and Agricolals of 1556, Voig tel's Setz-compass, Circumferentor, Stanley's Hedley Dial, Compass on Tele scope, Hanging Compass, Lack of Precision) ; Plane-table; Octant and Quadrant; Theodolite and Transit (Evolution of the Theodolite, Scott's Tachymeter, Hoskold's Engineer's Theodolite, Angleometer, Precision of Mine-Theodolites). I. Instrument-Parts and Implements. Cross-Hairs.—Mr. Scott‡ says Lean's dial " might also have been provided with a diaphragm and cross-hairs; for Huygene discovered that any object placed in the common focus of the two lenses of a Kepler telescope (1611)- appeared as distinct and well defined as any distant body. Following this established theory, in 1669 Jean Picard, Marquis Malvasia and others crossed silken fibers in the mutual focus of their astronomical instruments." If by this Mr. Scott means that Huygens and Picard first devised and applied cross-hairs to the focus of the telescope, the writer cannot agree with him. Huygens did not describe " his telescope without tubes until 1684, in his Astroscopia Compendiaria."§ Moreover, it is recorded that the English astronomer, Gascoigne,?

Jan 1, 1902

By F. T. Havard

(Canal Zone meeting, November, 1910.) I. INTRODUCTION. THE present truce in litigation between Western smelting and ranching interests gives opportunity for a summary of the results achieved by metallurgists in condensing fume and de-acidifying furnace-gases. In the absence of complete records of past experiments, there has been a good deal of unnecessary duplication of attempts and' failures. Yet, especially under the recent policy of our large corporations, looking to the economic recovery of the values of by- and waste products, original and, in some cases, effective measures have been developed by American metallurgists. In the case of Bliss vs. the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., the Montana Supreme Court, recognizing the progressive efforts made to render the flue-gases innocuous, and the value to the community of the smelting company's operations, refused to hamper its work, and returned a verdict in favor of the defendant. In the trial, the experimental firms of the company in the so-called "affected region" were proved to be thriving perfectly, showing that immunity was guaranteed to vegetation and stock by the wide distribution of the sulphurous acid gas in the dry air of Montana. Indeed, L. S. Austin has proved that by the time the fume is 4,000 ft.. distant from the stack, the percentage of sulphurous acid has been diminished from 2.28 to 0.00045; and Angus Smith has shown that rain must contain 40 parts per million of free acid before vegetation is affected. The arsenic in the stack-gases is but a very small part of the original content of the ore, of which 80 per cent. and over is rejected in the concentrator and furnace waste-products or recovered in the flues. Nevertheless, neither the peace in Montana nor the armistice

Aug 1, 1910

Jan 1, 1899

By AIME AIME

AT A meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute held in London on May 6, Dr. J. E. Stead was formally inducted into the chair by Dr. Eugene Schneider, the retiring president. After presenting the Bessemer gold medal to Harry Brearley, of Sheffield, England, for his distinguished services to the British steel industry, Doctor Stead delivered his presidential address, a masterly review of iron and steel making progress during the past 50 years, emphasizing economy in production, and pointing out suggestions for future improvement. A considerable portion of the address was devoted to blast-furnace operation.

Jan 1, 1920

By J. O. Betterton, W. K. Noyce

I~JTI HE work on the indium-zirconium system is part A of a larger investigation of zirconium-phase diagrams with solute elements, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, and antimony, which is intended to provide information about the metallic valency of zirconium. The system is an ideal example since the sizes of indium and zirconium atoms are nearly the same, and the solute and the solvent occur in the same row of the periodic table. The only solute from Group III B which had previously been added to zirconium was aluminum' and it was of interest to determine whether indium would dissolve appreciably in alpha zirconium and stabilize this phase in the same manner. Experimental Procedure The experimental methods used in the indium-zirconium work are similar to those described earlier for the silver-zirconium system.' Reactor Grade 1 iodide zirconium of 99.95 pct purity* and indium of 99.99 pct purity were arc cast, and then annealed in silica capsules with protective foils of zirconium and molybdenum. Annealing temperatures and times varied from 1 day at 1300°C to 43 days at 550°C. The compositions of the alloys were detcrmined by an individual chemical analysis of the actual metallographic specimens after two or more sides were examined to insure the absence of solute segregation. Calibrated thermocouples were used throughout, and the uncertainty in the temperatures reported, owing to calibration error, furnace control, and measurement of the small temperature gradients near the capsules, is believed to be well within ±2°C. Typical impurities in the alloys were found by a neutron-activation analysis of four different alloys. The results are given in Table I where the ranges of values will be seen to compare favorably with the usual values for iodide zirconium. With respect to oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon the absence of any unusual amount of these elements compared to iodide zirconium was indicated by the alloy hardness values, since hardness is increased sharply by the presence of these elements. The value for 0 pct In, obtained from the alloys by extrapolation, is 58 2 7 VPN which is in the low part3 f the normal range of hardness found in iodide zirconium. Results of the Experiments The zirconium-rich portion of the indium-zirconium phase diagram from the annealing experiments is shown in Fig. 1. Indium was found to

Jan 1, 1959

By AIME AIME

ON THE occasion of the eightieth birthday of Captain Robert W. Hunt, the Iron and Steel Committee of the Institute, desiring to commemorate the great contributions made to the steel industry by Captain Hunt during his long career, conceived the idea of a Hunt Medal to be awarded annually by the Institute for meritorious contributions to the art of making steel. The project was received enthusiastically by all to whom it was proposed, especially by Captain Hunt's partners and employees who considered it their right, and asked for the privilege of -. - raising the necessary funds within their own circle. This was agreed to, and the Institute has received from them $7500 as an endowment fund to provide an annual award, and $1000 for the expenses of providing of medal.

Jan 1, 1920

By C. WIFLARD HAYES

(New Haven Meeting, February, 1909.) I DESIRE to make it perfectly clear at the outset that I fully realize the hazardous nature of any attempt to estimate the quantity of iron-ore or any other mineral in the ground. I should not have had the temerity to venture upon an inventory of the iron-ore supplies of the United States except for the requirements of the Conservation Commission. During the preparation of this inventory I have been impressed by the wide diversity in estimates of those best qualified to. hold an opinion, and I am therefore prepared in advance for criticism of my figures. Inasmuch as this report was prepared in large part for unprofessional readers, I considered it necessary to classify and describe the commercial iron-ores in a somewhat elementary manner, in order to explain the reasons for the large element of uncertainty in the estimates. I have therefore given a chemical and a geological classification of iron-ores, which place the commercial deposits in six classes: (1) magmatic segregations in basic igneous rocks; (2) contact-deposits formed in connection with igneous intrusions; (3) concentration-deposits; (4) replacement-deposits; (5) bedded-deposits, and (6) gossan-deposits. The iron-ores are further distinguished under two classes available and not available. This classification is in large measure arbitrary, and it, is evident that it will vary front time to time. In the available class are placed those ores which can be worked at a profit under conditions essentially as they exist at present. Since it depends wholly on the question of costs, the various factors which affect cost will determine the classification of any particular deposit. Actual production, * Abstract of Report prepared for the Conservation Commission. t Chief Geologist, United States Geological Survey. .

Apr 1, 1909

By NEWTON B. KNOX

IN Bolivia, mining is still the principal economic activity, as it was before and during the Spanish Colonial period. Tin, tungsten, antimony, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, sulphur, and a little bismuth are produced. The Andes mountains are divided into two main ranges in Bolivia; the Western range marks the border with Chile and the Eastern range forms the backbone of the country; in the North it drops rather abruptly eastward, to the plains of the Beni, whereas in the South it splits and is separated from the Chaco flatlands by a series of folded mountain ranges. In general the mineral deposits are found within the Eastern range or in the hills that rise from the high plateau between the ranges - really parts of the Eastern range partly submerged by recent sediments. The mineral belt is thus over 500 miles long and about 100 miles wide and includes most of the principal centers of population and the most important means of communication. The region is mountainous and the roads are bad; furthermore labor is a serious problem, for the land is poor and the agricultural population is never far from hunger. The floating supply of miners is limited and soon exhausted in any emergency like the present.

Jan 1, 1945

By D. C. Jackling

I BESPEAK your indulgence for a brief expression of the views of a patriarch in the field of mineral industry technology relative to young men's problems in that sphere of education and endeavor. Wherever hereafter I employ the terms "technical education," "engineer," "technologist," or similar expressions, these are intended to be understood as relating to the broad field of the sciences and arts applicable to the mineral industries. First, the usefulness of technical education to either the possessor of it or those to whom its services may be made available industrially depends primarily upon the quality of the education and the capabilities of the educated to put his talents to effective and constructive employment in his chosen field of applied science.

Jan 1, 1940

By MAURICE ALTMAYER

M Y DUTIES, as a member of the Department of Franco-American War Cooperation of the French High Commission were to study the copper and brass industries of America from the mining of the various non-ferrous metals to the semi-finished, or finished materials. In the pursuit of these studies, it was my privilege to visit a number of industries and organizations in different parts of the country. I first visited most of the Eastern copper refineries that were supplying the Allies with vast amounts of metal. These works are producing their material by the multiple or the series process, although the first method predominates. But, regardless of the process employed all the plants attain an exceptionally high standard of quality in their production. One of the points that particularly attracted attention was the manner in which improvements could be traced from the older worlds to the more recent ones. The impression was that, thanks to a spirit of broad-minded cooperation between the principals of the companies and frequent exchanges of views between members of the staffs, all persons interested benefitted by the experience thus gained, to the advantage of the community at large.

Jan 1, 1920

By G. B. WATERHOUSE

THE year 1929 was exceedingly busy and prosperous for the iron and steel industry in the United States. The lake shipments of ore were approximately 65,000,000 tons, steel ingots produced were about 57,000,000 tons. Plants were very active. operating for many months well over their rated capacity, slowing down during the last quarter following the severe break in the stock market. The ore tonnage mentioned above was the greatest ever shipped by lake from the Lake Superior region. The trend at the ore mines has been to supplement manual labor by mechanical appliances as much as possible. Mining methods have been greatly improved along the lines of safety as well as to increase the percentage of ore recovery. Crushing and grading of iron ores continued to gain in popularity inasmuch as remarkable blast-furnace operations and records were obtained with sizing and uniformity of raw materials. Progress was made along other lines. The Bradley process for the separation of manganese osicle and iron oside from siliceous manganiferous iron ore was cleuelopecl; also considerable work was clone on a process for the beneficiation of the Cuban laterite ores. Sintering of ores and concentrates increased in popularity. A new analytical method for the deter- mination of sulfur in iron ore was worked out which reduced the time required appreciably. The ore re- serves of the Lake Superior district continued to receive considerable attention and played an important part in the recent mergers which have taken place in the iron ancl steel industry.

Jan 1, 1930

By Casper A. Nelson, Wendell M. Whitecotton

A WIDE variety of lead ore is treated by the Midvale Smelter, for it is a custom plant not only treating Company lead concentrate and direct-smelting ores but also custom ores and concentrates, principally from Utah, Idaho, and Nevada, with lesser amounts from Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Oregon, and Washington. The principal operating departments of the plant are weighing and sampling, Wedge roaster, D&L sintering, blast furnace and drossing, and baghouse. The lead bullion produced is shipped to a subsidiary, the U.S.S. Lead Refinery, Inc., at East Chicago, while the by-products, such as matte and speiss, are shipped to other smelters or re-treated at the plant.

Jan 1, 1948

By W. B. Tucker

UNUSUAL interest has recently centered in the Mojave mining district of California, owing to new discoveries of gold ore at the Silver Queen mine, and subsequently at other neighboring proper- ties. These finds have proved that opportunities exist for the prospector even in old mining districts, where careful search may still be rewarded. The Mojave district is characterized by a group of small hills centering around Soledad Butte, four to six miles southwest of Mojave, in Kern County. This butte is 1250 ft. higher than the surrounding desert and 4000 ft. above sea level. Four miles west of Soledad Mountain are the so-called Middle Buttes, a group of flat-topped hills. Gold was first discovered in the district in 1894, and the following productive mines developed: Queen

Jan 1, 1936

(The following -list, contains the navies of those members of the Institute of whose connection with military service we have only recently become acquainted; it also includes the names of a few who have recently been promoted or transferred. A com-plete list was published in the Year Book, issued as a supplement of the Bulletin for March, 1918.) ADDICKS, LAWRENCE, Naval Consulting Board. ALINE, P. A., Camp Lewis. BARCUS, WALTER .J. E., Captain, Ordnance Department. BAUSH, JOHN R., Private, 1st Army Headquarters Regiment, Co. M. BENNETT, A. F., Lieutenant. BILLINGSLEY, PAUL, Engineer Officer, Aviation Section, Signal Officers' Reserve Corps. BOOTH, L. E., Ordnance Department. BROWN, JAMES F., 2d, 1st Lieutenant, Ordnance Reserve Corps, A. E. F.

Jan 4, 1918

Bernard MacDonald, Guanajuato, Mexico (communication to the Secretary*):—Mr. Iceyes's paper is very interesting to me because of my personal experience with the development of the ore-deposits of Lake Valley.

Jan 1, 1909