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By Oswald J. Heinrich

SINCE my communication to the Institute at the Baltimore meeting in 1879,* in which I took the lead in emphasizing the importance of a new method in the manufacture of soda, already practiced to some extent in England and on the Continent of Europe, five years have passed. I.then referred particularly to the advantages offered in the United States for this peculiar method, by the ammonia process, namely: 1. At the present time, at least, we have but one mine in this country where rock-salt is mined, namely, at New Iberia, La. On the other hand, we have many localities where brine of various degrees of strength, up to that of cold saturation, is obtained in large quantities. 2. We have excellent fuel, in close proximity to most of the brinecenters. 3. Our supplies of pyrites, to use in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, for use in the manufacture of soda by the Leblanc process, are mostly too far from the brine-centers to permit competition in that line with the more favorable conditions existing in England. 4. Unlike our foreign rivals, we have no large and costly plants, erected on the Leblanc plan, which must be abandoned and exchanged for new but cheaper plants, before the ammonia-soda process can be adopted. 5. We have a constantly increasing demand for soda, which is almost entirely supplied by importation. If slow progress has been made hitherto in this country in the extension of this manufacture (only one plant at Syracuse, erected . under the Solvay patent, having as yet been placed in operation), I still feel gratified in saying that developments in England, and particularly on the Continent of Europe, give ample proof of the

Jan 1, 1885

By Reginald S. Dean

THE widespread occurrence of manganese in low grade oxide and carbonate ores not amenable to mechanical concentration has led to extensive investigations of hydrometallurgical methods for producing a pure manganese compound suitable for further treatment. Manganese carbonate is the preferable compound. This product when fully crystalline and of not too fine crystal size is easily filtrable and stable in air. It can be converted to other compounds such as the oxides by heating in air or can be reacted with acids for producing salts. A useful hydrometallurgical process must produce relatively concentrated solutions that can be purified easily, reagents must be cyclically used, and heat requirements must be small. Neither the ammonium sulphate nor sulphur dioxide leaching processes that have been tested extensively fulfill these 'requirements. Other hereto-fore proposed processes have obvious limitations and have not been tried on a large scale. The present process is based on the discovery by the writer of a new group of aqueous manganese-ammonia complex solutions highly concentrated in ammonia, which permit rapid solution of manganous oxide to concentrations of 80 to 100 g Mn per liter and from which a fully crystalline, easily filterable manganese carbonate is precipitated by the addition of carbon dioxide and partial ammonia removal. Although the process may be carried out with many ammonium salts, commercial advantages dictate the use of ammonium carbamate, which is obtained when CO2 is passed into concentrated aqueous solutions of ammonia. If the carbamate is used, the only reagents, ammonia and C02, are volatile and may therefore be recovered from solutions and residues by heating, thus eliminating washing and extensive evaporation. Impurities are controlled easily as most metal oxides are either insoluble in the lixiviant or fail to precipitate with the manganese carbonate. Others are controlled by sulphide addition. The process has been tested extensively on a small scale on a wide variety of ores; including Three Kids, Artillery Peak, Cuyuna, and Chamberlain; as repre-

Jan 1, 1952

By Heinrich Ries

With the rapid development of Canadian industries calling for the use of fire-brick for the lining of furnaces or cement-kilns, for constructing brick-kilns or coke-ovens, for lead-furnaces, etc., the question has often arisen whether the provirices within the Dominion have not the necessary raw materials for the manufacture of such refractory wares. As an indication for the need of such products in Canada, me find that the imports in 1910 amounted in value to $519,454. The materials came in part from Great Britain, and part from the United States. Those supplied by the latter country are obtained largely from Pennsylvania and Ohio, and when shipped to distant points, such as British Columbia, the item of transportation is a serious factor. Scotch fire-brick is used both in eastern and western Canada, but in the latter case the shipments are made by water route to Vancouver. During the past four years I have been investigating the clay-deposits of Canada, for the Canadian Geological Survey, and while all types of clay have been included in the study, special pains have been taken to ascertain the occurrence of refractory clays. As a result of this work we are able to report on the existence of beds of refractory clays at the followiug localities: Inverness and Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia; St. Remi, d'Amherst, Quebec; Dirt Hills and Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan; Sumas Mountain, near Clayburn, B. C., and Kyuquot, on northwestern Vancouver Island. A map of Canada, showing the fire-clay deposits, is given in Fig. 1. It is possible that other deposits may be discovered in the future in districts remotely located from the present lines of railroad.

Jan 1, 1914

By Paul D. Merica, W. A. Mudge

One of the most prominent features of our present-day industrial development is the ever-increasing demand put upon materials of construction. Engineering ingenuity, within the past 25 years, has been unusually active, and in some fields at least engineers frankly say that engineering design has progressed as far as the limitations imposed by the properties of the present materials of construction will permit. Consequently, they are today demanding improvement in their working materials and seeking new ones, through the aid of which the present limitations of design may be overcome. The activity of this search is evident in all fields, but it is particularly so in that of structural materials required to be resistant to corrosion. The corrosion resistance of metals and alloys is never absolute and all-inclusive; a particular alloy will withstand some corrosive conditions well and fail utterly under others. Furthermore, other properties, physical and mechanical, required in conjunction with corrosion resistance vary considerably for different commercial applications. One wants a soft, ductile sheet metal resistant to atmospheric corrosion; another, a high-strength alloy resistant to sulfuric acid. The last decade has witnessed active and definite progress in the development of high-strength, corrosion-resisting alloys. In June, 1924, a symposium by the American Society for Testing Materials, on Corrosion-resistant, Heat-resistant and Electrical-resistance Alloys, disclosed no less than 60 commercial alloys the properties of which were described as being suitable for industrial service where corrosion resistance was a feature. Today the number of these alloys has been doubled, at least. In addition, economy in design and construction through decreased weight has given considerable impetus to the improvement of alloys of which the mechanical propprties may be improved by heat-treatment.

Jan 1, 1935

By Carle Hayward

THIS work was first undertaken in the metallurgical laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1907 by L. A. Dickinson, E. Phelps, and V. S. Rood, under the author's direction. They attempted to determine the diagram for the system Cu2S-NiS, but several inexplicable results were obtained. The following year, P. H. Mayer with Mr. Dickinson carried, on some experiments with nickel sulphide and found that the molten material slowly lost sulphur until it reached a composition corresponding to the compound Ni3S2, established by Bornemann.1 At this point the composition remained stable. The freezing points of the mixtures gradually fell off with the loss of sulphur. Since the above facts seemed to explain the erratic results obtained in the first experiments, Mr. Mayer with F. Jaeger attempted in 1910 to establish a correct equilibrium diagram for the Cu2S-Ni3S2 series. They prepared pure Cu2S and Ni3S2 and determined the cooling curves for various mixtures. The fusions were made in a platinum resistance furnace and the temperatures were measured with a platinum-iridium thermocouple connected with a Sullivan galvanometer. The curve was established for mixtures containing more than 40 per cent. Cu2S, but they were unable to determine certainly the direction of the curve beyond that point. Nothing further was attempted with this series until the present year, when the work was carried to a successful conclusion with the assistance of A. Butts, Jr., and E. H. Weil. The results of this work are given in the following pages.

Jan 1, 1914

By Gardner F. Williams

Chemically, the diamond is composed of the element carbon in its pure crystallized state. The diamond crystallizes in the isometric system, and the most common forms are the octahedron and dodecahedron, while the (24-sided) tetrahexa-hedron is not uncommon. Cube diamonds with beveled edges representing the combination 8 0 8 and 8 0 2 are occasionally found in the Bultfontein and Premier (Wesselton) mines at Kimberley, South Africa. The diamonds from various mines have distinctive forms of crystallization, or variations of the same forms, so characteristic that those familiar with South African diamond-mines and their products can determine positively from which mine any given parcel of diamonds has been obtained. It is not always possible to determine the source of each individual diamond, for similar stones are occasionally found in digerent mines; but these are exceptions to the rule. There is a difference in the luster, shape or crystalline form of the diamonds from the various mines that gives each mine some distinctive characteristic. In one mine nearly all of the crystals are sharp-edged octahedrons, while in another, dodecahedrons with rounded faces predominate. One might give no end of peculiarities of the diamonds from the various mines; but it will suffice for the purposes of this paper to state the fact that such distinctive characteristics do occur. From this observation it may be concluded that the diamonds in the mines of the Eimberley district, which occupies a small area (see Fig. I), did not have a common origin. The diamond is the most impenetrable of all known substances, and will scratch any other stone, or the hardest steel. It is a very strong reflector of light, and refracts incident rays more than any other substance except crocoite.l

Jan 1, 1905

By C. A. Lemke

The ores now milled at the Midvale concentrator of the United States Smelting, Refining & Mining Co. come mostly from the company's mine in the Bingham district, about 18 miles west of Midvale. Custom ores from this same district and from other western mining districts are also milled at times. The Bingham ores consist of galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite in a gangue of quartz, quartzite, limestone, and porphyry. The percentage of chalcopyrite is small, usually about 0.5 per cent., while the galena, pyrite, and sphalerite combined constitute about 60 per cent, of the total ore. These three minerals vary considerably in amount and, at times, all three are somewhat oxidized. The ores also contain gold and silver, the former being mostly in the pyrite while the latter is generally with the galena. The crystallization of the economic minerals varies from fairly coarse to extremely fine. The ores are carried to Midvale by the Bingham & Garfield and the Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroads or by the Denver & Rio Grande Western railroad, in 50-ton, steel, full dump cars. The milling problem is to recover the silver-bearing galena, the gold-bearing pyrite, and the chalcopyrite in a product suitable for the lead smelter and containing the least possible amount of gangue and sphalerite and then recover the sphalerite in a product suitable for a zinc smelter. The minerals are recovered partly by water concentration and partly by water concentration combined with electrostatic treatment. Gravity Concentrator The gravity concentrator has a capacity of about 465 tons in 24 hr. The mill buildings are of wood. The mill was built in 1905 to handle approximately 90 tons in 24 hr.; since that time several additions have been built and various changes have been made in the flow sheet. The last extension, which raised the capacity of the mill to its present level, was built in 1915. The additions to the mill building have not kept pace with

Jan 1, 1926

By Robert K. Warner

Is an accurate measurement of the efficiency of a screen under a given set of operating conditions valuable? If so, what is the efficiency of a screen and how can it be measured? Sizing, especially of the finer sizes of material, has increased in importance in the development of flow sheets as a result of the perfecting of the rapid vibrating screens. More consideration should be given screens in the preparation of ball-mill feed, where they permit the admission of a dryer feed than the classifier. Where possible, the introduction of a screen ahead of the primary ball-mill, and the diverting of ore below, say, 4 mm. to a secondary mill, might result in a greater overall economy because of the thicker feed and the better adjustment of crushing media and mill operation to the reduction demanded. With the present trend back toward a combination of gravity methods and flotation, rather than flotation alone, the accurate, economical sizing possible with the new screens makes fine jigging a method to be considered. W. o. Borcherdtl and John Bland= discuss the screening problem and also the value of close sizing in the concentration of some of the rare-metal ores. If a screen is to be used, it should be selected in competition with others; other things being equal, that screen which makes the cleanest oversize should be preferred. The quality of the screening and the tons handled per dollar together determine the choice and, therefore, both of these must be accurately measured if a correct decision is to be reached. Too frequently in mill design, the capacity has been considered almost to the exclusion of the completeness with which the undersize is separated from the oversize. It is, of course, possible to increase the aperture of the screen, and thus insure the removal of a sufficiently coarse

Jan 1, 1924

By Alan D. Smith

Mine roof fall characteristics of 250 falls in 5 different room-and-pillar coal mines, located in Pike, Martin, and Floyd counties, were investigated to determine the relationship of selected parameters associated with roof failure and the assumed condition of the mine roof before failure. The selected parameters used in the study included: presence of cracks and water before the occurrence of fall, sloughing of coal ribs, floor heave condition, type of roof support (resin or mechanical anchor bolts), distance to coal face, and time of occurrence of fall after initial coal extraction. In addition, research hypotheses, utilizing multiple linear regression techniques, were generated to test the relationship among the selected parameters and mine roof condition. The results indicated that the vast majority of falls portrayed some presence of water before the actual fall, occurred in less than 30 weeks after initial coal excavation, located usually greater than 30 meters from nearest coal face, gave evidence of cracks in mine roof before occurrence of fall, generally portrayed a good roof condition before the fall, showed presence of sloughing of coal ribs, and gave no occurrence of floor heave before occurrence of fall. In terms of the characteristics of the original support systems in the mine roof falls studied, most roofs were either supported by mechanical-anchor bolts or resin or full-column bolts; very rarely did the roof appear to fail if supported by posts or cribs. A detail inspection of the hypothesis and model comparison results gave supporting evidence that the condition of the roof is not dependent on the usual indicators of potential failure, such as presence of cracks and moisture. In fact, in most cases of mine roof failure, the immediate roof condition was rated as good or better, which gives little or no indication of pending failure and collapse. Hence, a combination of factors that are not easily accessible to measurement, are the dominant factors in the determination of roof fall-potential areas.

Jan 1, 1984

By George Stone

THE method of making oxide of zinc direct from the ore was invented and developed at the works of The New Jersey Zinc Co. at Newark in the middle of the last century. The process was invented by Burrows, who had not the ability, financial or technical, to work out the details necessary to make it of commercial value. This was done by Col. Wetherill, whose name is commonly attached to this process. The, grate bars used are also frequently called Wetherill grates, which is a misnomer because they were in common use for boiler firing at the time and he never claimed their invention. The invention of the process was due to the efforts of The New Jersey Zinc Co. to find a profitable means of working the ores from Franklin and Sterling Hill, N. J. These are a mixture of franklinite, willemite and zincite, containing about 20 per cent. of zinc. The first attempts were to make spelter, which were not successful, owing to the low grade of the ore and the fusibility of the residue. Failing in this, the next attempt was to make oxide in large muffles and reverberatory furnaces. This succeeded, although the cost of operation was high, the recovery low, and the quality of the product uncertain. In 1855, the new process was patented and has been in successful operation ever since. Essentially, the process is to spread a mixture of coal and ore on a body of burning coal on a perforated grate and blow an excess of air through the grate. The zinc is reduced in contact with the coal, volatilizes and burned by the excess of air in the upper part off the furnace and in the flues. It is then carried to the hag rooms by the excess air and products of combustion which are forced through the flues by fans. In its main features, the process is the same today as at the time of its invention, but the details have been so modified that it would hardly be recognized by its originators.

Jan 9, 1917

By Paul Weir

During the past decade, methods of producing bituminous coal in the state of Illinois, which ranks third in production among the states in which bituminous coal is mined, have undergone great changes. From less than one million tons in 1923, the strip-mine production has gradually increased to a high of 11,725,870 tons in 1937. From a negligible amount prior to 1927, the amount of coal mechanically loaded underground had increased to a high of 28,374,362 tons in 1937. The amount manually loaded in 1937 reached a low of 12,332,023 tons. In this same year, this state ranked first in strip-mine production, also in mechanically loaded production. For this reason a study of the influence of mechanization on location of production in Illinois may be helpful in anticipating what may happen in other producing states. The reason for the changes in methods lies in the differences in costs of production. The Bureau of Research and Statistics of the National Bituminous Coal Commission has made public the following costs of production by various methods in the state of Illinois (district 10) for the last nine months of 1937: all mines, $1.7602 per ton; strip mines, $1.4319; mechanical loading mines, $1.7457; hand loading mines, $2.1793; all underground mines, $1.8703. These are weighted averages for the entire district. Inasmuch as production in 1937 was reported from 58 counties scattered over two-thirds of the area of the state and from five different seams varying in thickness from less than 3 ft. to as much as 12 ft., it is apparent that the location of production must be influenced by the extent of mechanization possible in the various producing counties. SHIFT in Production The term "mechanization" is commonly used to designate the coal-loading operation. However, in a broader sense it embraces the use of any and all mechanical and electrical equipment on the surface and underground. Strip mining is an intensive form of mechanization. The mechanical cleaning of coal is a form of mechanization. Cutting machines and motor haulage likewise are forms of mechanization, hence

Jan 1, 1940

By T. V. Moore

IN many of the important problems of the petroleum engineer, it is necessary to know accurately the laws governing the flow of gas and liquid mixtures in vertical' pipes. Although much work has been done along these lines, no satisfactory solution to the problem has been found. A good theoretical discussion of the energy balance in a gas¬lift has been published-by Versluys.1 One of the most important factors affecting the efficiency of the flow of oil and gas mixtures is slippage, and in most of the experimental work that has been done no provision has been made for the measurement of this quantity. As Versluys pointed out, since there is no method now known to estimate it from the data usually taken; slippage must be determined empirically. This paper presents the results of some work carried on to, measure slippage in short experimental gas-lifts. As shown herein, slippage can be easily calculated in a vertical pipe carrying a mixture of oil and gas if the fractions of the pipe occupied by liquid and gas respectively are known. In this work, the fraction of the pipe occupied by the liquid was measured under a wide variety of conditions and the relationship between this fraction and other quantities, which are easily measured in ordinary work, was determined. It was hoped that the quantitative relationship obtained from this work could be used-for making accurate calculations in flowing or gas-lift wells, but unfortunately it did not check satisfactorily when applied to actual wells. Apparently flow in long flow pipes is mote efficient than in the short ones used for the experimental work. Nevertheless, it is felt that the data themselves are of interest; that the method of attack may be of value in future work and that the relationship derived between slip and the relative velocities is a contribution toward the solution of the gas-lift problem.

Jan 1, 1931

By James Finlay

(New York Meeting, February, 1913) AT first blush one is tempted to say that iron-mines are like any other mines, and that principles governing mining-property in general will apply to them. But there are certain considerations which seem to repay reflection. Gold and copper are more or less independent of transportation. The proof of this is that those metals are profitably mined and shipped from the remotest corners of the earth. Their value is determined by the cost of production on the ground. This is quite true of gold, not quite so true of copper, not at all true of iron. If New York were a fishing-village and Chicago' a swamp, Calumet & Hecla might still be a bonanza. The main element of its value is the 60 lb. of fine copper per ton which it produced for years. But the Mesabi Range is absolutely dependent upon the industrial activity in the United States. Iron-manufacture in Europe would give it no value whatever. If Chicago and New York had a population of Peruvians or Hindus, the Hull-Rust mine would be as worthless a bit of landscape as any tundra in Alaska. I have discussed these facts more or less casually and dimly in my book on the cost of mining and in my report to the Tax Commissioners of Michigan1 I shall try here to bring them out in more detail. I have already referred to some differences in the problem of mining as between the more precious metals, e.g., gold, and the less precious and more abundant minerals, like iron and coal; but it is interesting to note that the literature of the eco-

Jan 3, 1913

By Jack R. Dymond, Ronald G. Senechal, Robert O. Rye, Cyrus W. Field, Joseph F. Whelan

Metalliferous sediments are present through- out much of the ocean basins and are locally prominent in the sedimentary column on and near the Nazca plate of the east-southeast Pacific Ocean. They typically have anomalously high concentrations of the transition metals, and those on parts of the East Pacific Rise, the Bauer Deep, and other basinal depressions may contain more then 12% iron, 4% manganese, 0.1 % each of copper and nickel, and geochemically significant amounts of zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, arsenic, beryllium, silver, and possibly gold. Statistical interprerarions of chemical data indicate that most metals in sediments on the East Pacific Rise were derived from a hydrothermal component related to submarine volcanism, whereas those in basinal sediments accumulated from both hydrothermal and hydrogenous components of sedimentation. However, concentrations of the metals are controlled more by the absence of biogenic and detrital components than by nearness to centers of hydrothermal activity.

Jan 1, 1983

By J. G. Savins

Analytical procedures are described for optimizing the selection of a rheological model when it is desired to express the functional relationship between true shearrate and shearing stress in analytical form. The procedures are extended to two principal model categories — "Generalized Newtonian" and "Viscoplastic" models. Graphical examples are presented to illustrate the utility of certain characteristic deriuative functions in distinguishing between these categories and in determining how well a particular model reflects the flow behavior of rheologically anomalous materials in simple shearing flows. INTRODUCTION Modern drilling fluids and fracturing fluids, being chemically complex, are frequently non-Newtonian — a peculiarity which complicates the solution of problems such as designing flowline and process equipment, and predicting laminar-turbulent behavior, solid-suspending ability and cutting-transport efficiency. Therefore, techniques of data analysis which accurately characterize the behavior of rheologically complex materials are needed for the accurate formulation of solutions of these and similar problems. It is the purpose of this paper to describe the application of a sensitive method of rheological data analysis — the dual differentiation-integration method of optimizing the selection of the functional relation between shear rate and shearing stress — to a variety of materials of interest in drilling and production practices. BASIC CONCEPTS THE DIFFERENTIATION METHOD To a first approximation, the viscosity function for a non-Newtonian system can be expressed in a form analogous to Newton's law of viscosity by the following generalization2.3 between the stress On introducing the restrictions that the system is incompressible and the motion is rectilinear, then l = 0 and l3 = 0 ; and with the further restriction that the flow is slip-free, the viscosity (an invariant) is then determined solely by 12. With this approach one can set up a suite of integral equations relating observed kinematical and dynamical parameters for certain types of flow experiments involving simple shearing motion, e.g., flow in a cylindrical tube, flow between rotating concentric cylinders, and flow between fixed parallel surfaces of large aspect ratio. Taken in the order cited, these integral equations are as follows.

By Allen Garrison

IT is the purpose of this article to present. the results of an investiga-tion of certain clay and shale suspensions having viscosities that are materially influenced by fluid motion, and to discuss the bearing of these results, upon the choice of policy in the control of drilling fluids. A previous article described the design and the characteristics of an instru-ment adapted to measure the viscosity of plastic suspensions during continuous uniform motion and at a variety of speeds.1 It has long been recognized that the viscosity of a clay suspension depends on the past history of the fluid motion. Since an abundance of literature is available on this phenomenon,2 it is not necessary to describe it in more than general terms. It is usually observed that rapid motion reduces the viscosity of a clay suspension, and that some time is required for the viscosity to fall to its equilibrium value after the steady motion is started. On reducing the speed of motion to some lower value, the viscosity again rises, but it also requires some time to attain a steady viscosity value at the slower rate of motion. Thus clay suspensions are usually observed to be increasing in viscosity as time passes when the measurement has been immediately preceded by fluid motion that was more rapid than that employed in the measurement. And it is usually observed that the viscosity falls as time passes when the measurement has been preceded by more quiescent conditions. Reed,3 and Broughton and Hand4 have reported a condition of observa-tion of clay suspensions in which the viscosity was observed to fall during the first few moments of steady motion, and rise thereafter. The characteristics of the new instrument are particularly well adapted to studies of this kind. With it we have been able to observe all of the phenomena described above, and it is important to understand their nature because they all occur at some time during normal drill-

Jan 1, 1939

By Morris Cohen

WITHIN the past two years, a number of publications have called attention to the double peaks, or stages, that appear in the hardness and strength curves of certain aging alloys. The author has shown the existence of double hardness peaks during the aging of a high-purity silver-copper alloy;1 and on the basis of electrical resistance, microscopic, dilation and lattice-parameter measurements, he concluded that the initial hardness peak occurs prior to precipitation while the secondary hardening is due to precipitation. It was suggested that the general mechanism of age-hardening involves two consecutive processes, the first consisting of nucleus or knot2 formation, and the second consisting of actual precipitation and particle growth. It was further held that the two stages are interdependent, but because of nonuniform precipitation they may overlap each other to an extent that increases as the aging temperature is raised. At high aging temperatures, the effect of the first stage cannot be detected because of the rapid occurrence of precipitation. The general theory of age-hardening recently presented by Dr. M. L. V. Gayler3 is in close agreement with the picture outlined above. With reference to work done on duralumin, copper-beryllium and copper-silver alloys, Dr. Gayler also concluded that age-hardening takes place in two consecutive steps: first, diffusion (in which the solute atoms migrate to certain crystallographic planes), and then precipitation. However, W. L. Fink and D. W. Smith4 have shown that the double aging peaks that appear in the strength curves of high-purity aluminum-copper alloys may be explained without recourse to pre-precipitation phenomena. By means of very careful metallographic technique, Fink and Smith demonstrated that during aging the precipitation takes place at an accelerated rate along the grain boundaries and slip planes as a result of the plastic deformation caused by the drastic quench from the solution heat-treatment temperature. ? The general precipitation occurs at a

Jan 1, 1938

By E. G. Bailey

The bituminous coal industry faces a real problem, if it desires to retain the position in the power-generation field to which it is economically entitled. More power is probably produced today for electrical energy, for steam-driven and steam-heating industries and processes, for transportation by rail, water, highway and air, collectively, than ever before, and yet the total bituminous coal production has decreased about 38 per cent, from 575,000,000 tons in 1926 to 357,500,000 tons in 1934. It is not the intention of the writer to recommend coal as a fuel for automobiles and airplanes, but rather to point to these forms of transportation as being responsible in a very measurable degree for reducing the coal consumed by railroads. Petroleum products may still further reduce consumption of locomotive fuel through the extension of the use of Diesel-driven trains. Oil-burning steam-driven locomotivcs are replacing coal in some places, where railroads operating high-speed passenger trains are willing, temporarily at least, to pay a premium for the fuel that is low in ash and produces less smoke and practically no cinders. In the navy and ocean-going passenger ships, oil is so firmly established, and has such definite advantages over coal as formerly fired, in steaming radius, in ease of bunkering, cleanliness, and reduction in firing labor, that very outstanding developments in the handling and burning of coal will be rcquired in order to replace oil. For freighters on the Great Lakes, coal is the logical fuel, but there is great and immediate need of radical improvements in its use, else that market also may be lessened. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss in detail bituminous coal for either locomotive or marine use, but, rather, generation of power in stationary plants, consisting of electrical generating stations and that very large group of miscellaneous industrial plants, such as paper, rubber, textile, steel and other industries that use electrical, mechanical, and steam power, derived from either hydro or some form of fuel.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. E. Agnew

The Eastern district, composed of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, with its native ores, was the cradle of the iron industry of the United States. The district attained and held the leadership in production of pig iron for over 100 years, from pre-Revolutionary days to approximately 1875. The first shipment of Lake hematite ore was made in 1853. It was a small shipment, transported by a sailing vessel and a canal barge, but it was the beginning of the end of the supremacy of the Eastern district, although at that time the ore was supposed to be too rich to be successfully smelted with the block coal then in use at western furnaces. The iron made from the first shipment of Lake ore was worked into nails by the Sharon Iron Co., at Sharon, Pa. The writer's great-grandfather, David Agnew, and his brother, John P. Agnew, owners and operators of the Sharpsville furnace, Sharpsville, Pa., worked the shipment through a furnace. Because of this, the writer feels some satisfaction in having been one of a group that solved the problem of making profitable an operation using Eastern district ores exclusively. With the development of Lake mines, and the production and use of coke, the Middle West district gradually assumed the position of leadership in production; because, even though the ores were transported 1000 miles by water and rail, its cost figure on pig iron was better than that of the eastern producer whose furnace was next to his mine. Such a cost figure was possible because the ore was naturally rich in iron and reduced easily. It was possible to carry a heavy burden on the furnace, which resulted in large tonnage and low coke per ton of iron. This paper is in no sense a technical one. The purpose is to show that with the proper physical preparation of the Eastern magnetites they will reduce as easily as the Lake hematites, and because of the high iron concentration give the Eastern producer just as much advantage as formerly he was at a disadvantage in comparison with the Middle West producer.

Jan 1, 1938

By Ralph H. Sweetser

At the joint session of Blast Furnace and Open Hearth Committees, April 7, 1937, at Birmingham, the subject of the quality of basic open-hearth pig iron was so well presented and discussed from so many different viewpoints that it was the general opinion that progress had been made and that such meetings were conducive to the advancement of the art of making pig iron of the right quality for the open-hearth man to produce the most satisfactory quality of steel. It was agreed that there is a decided differentiation between the chemical analysis of pig iron and the "quality" of pig iron. Paul J. McKim said that open-hearth furnace operators frequently make reference to certain types of iron as "bad iron," "dirty iron," "cold metal," etc., claiming that when using these irons, although they are within specified chemical analysis, it is impossible to produce quality steel. Mr. McKim gave a list of the suggested causes of those "certain types" of bad irons that have a thoroughly respectable analysis but a thoroughly disreputable character. Another open-hearth man, P. A. MacIsaac, of Nova Scotia, said that: The effects of iron that is below standard in analysis or in that mysterious property called quality, are well known to all open-hearth operators. It has been shown that iron of this type results in the production of steels on which the rcjections of finished product run high. What is to be done about it? I would say that the burden of producing high-quality iron should be placed squarely on the shoulders of the blastfurnace man, even as that of making good steel is shouldered by the open-hearth man. It is the purpose of this paper to bring out into the open this "mysterious property called quality"; that is, in those "certain types" of basic pig iron that make it impossible to produce quality steels; and at the same time to point the way for the blast-furnace man to be able to shoulder the burden that Mr. MacIsaac and all other open-hearth men and foundry-men have placed upon him. Silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are not the guilty elements because these are known, specified and usually kept within the

Jan 1, 1938