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Jan 1, 1881

By Alan Morris

SEASON cracking of brass has received wide attention and there is a wealth of technical literature on the subject. Its causes are fairly well understood and means for its prevention are inexpensive and effective, .so that the frequency of failures from this source has diminished of recent years. But its sister phenomenon, the failure of annealed brass by reason of applied tensile stress plus a certain type of corrosion, has received less attention, though it has been responsible for occasional more or less troublesome cases of cracking of brass in service. The work described in the following pages was undertaken about two years ago to determine the relative resistance of various commercial brass mixtures to stress-corrosion cracking, and to learn something of the controlling factors. By stress-corrosion cracking we mean the cracking of brass free- from internal stresses by reason of applied tensile stress and simultaneous attack by certain corrosive agents. Rogers,1 in discussing a paper by Hatfield and Thirkell, says : "He had also applied a solution of mercuric salt to tensile test pieces of brass whilst they were under stress in the testing machine. At very moderate stresses such test pieces cracked, and very readily broke." Moore, Beckinsale and Mallinson2 subjected test pieces to simultane-us corrosion and tensile stress. In order to determine the minimum stress detectable in brass by the mercurous nitrate test, tensile samples were placed under stress and treated with mercurous nitrate solution. They found that brass stressed below a minimum did not crack.

Jan 1, 1930

By Robert F. Mehi

The mechanical behavior of metals and alloys is presumably conditioned by two factors; namely, the crystallinc symmetry and the interatomic forces. Considerable attention has been given to the first of these factors through the recent advances in X-ray technique. It is the purpose of the present paper to call attention to the importance of the second of these factors, to point out promising methods of investigation, and to present some pertinent data. Plastic deformation takes place by slip along atomic planes.' This slip may be inhibited in a number of ways: by the interatomic forces of, cohesion which bind the atoms rigidly in a lattice structure, which in pure metals is usually of high symmetry; by latticc distortion caused by solid solution formation or by mechanical strain; by the intercrystalline boundaries whcrc slip is restrained, probably by the non-registration of the atom planes in adjacent crystal1ites;2 and by the presence of small hard particles which serve to "key" the slip along the atom planes.5 In pure metals, and perhaps also in solid solutions, the atom planes of easiest slip are those exhibhing the greatest density of atomic population and the greatest interplanar distance4 and apparently can now be pre-dict,ed from the analysis of the lattices. Concerning the interatomic forccs, which resist this slip by holding the atoms firmly together, little is known. Most textbooks on physical metallurgy, following the work of Bot-tone,5 correlate the hardness of the pure metals with the atomic volume,

By Chester S. Conrad

SEVERAL years ago Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co. intensified efforts to combat the hazard of mine fires. The program consisted of three parts in the order of likely accomplishment: 1) Purchase and installation of newer and more practical fire fighting equipment. 2) Establishment of trained fire fighting teams at every mine plant. 3) A drive to remove the causes of mine fires. Experimentation with alternating current on section equipment is a major development in this part of the program. Use of alternating current to power mining equipment had been recognized as being most practical from the standpoint of safety. A means to re- place the d-c traction motor is all that has delayed complete section mechanization with a-c power.

Jan 1, 1958

By Dell H. Adams

COAL EXPLORATION Coal exploration may be defined as the acquisition of data necessary to define and acquire a block of coal which can be mined at a profit. Unlike ore minerals, coal resources are widespread and relatively abundant with supply exceeding demand in almost every case. Thus simple discovery of coal is generally not enough. The chemical and physical variability of individual coal seams, the capital intensive nature of coal mine development, and the changing patterns of utilization require that a multiphase, three-dimensional evaluation be made of each potential reserve. Factors which must be investigated include not only the quantity and quality of the coal but also the geologic, hydrologic, and engineering characteristics of the seam and its surrounding strata. Acquisition of property to provide a secure base for exploration and mine development is equal in importance to the geologic and engineering programs. The successful development of a coal reserve requires that control of coal and, in the case of a strip mine, the surface be in the form of contiguous blocks of sufficient size to support mining. PHASES OF EXPLORATION The high capital risks of coal exploration and land acquisition dictate that a multiphase program be utilized to minimize initial risk. In such a program, phased development of the data insures that each increase in capital expenditures will be justified by a corresponding increase in the level of confidence in the ultimate success of the project. Each phase is designed to provide sufficient data and property control to facilitate the decision whether to proceed to the next phase of development or to discontinue the program (Table 1). The first phase of a typical exploration program consists of a pre-

Jan 1, 1981

By Kenneth Seaver

It is rather gratifying that in the field of the manufacture of refractories, in which, as a whole, foreign practice has surpassed us, the United States stands pre-eminent in the making of silica brick. In some instances European manufacturers have refused point-blank to credit the possibility of making to such specifications as are Common with us, until the actual completed shapes were shipped for inspection. But both the manufacturer and consumer in foreign lands are now frankly learning from us, and benefiting by our advanced practice in this field, as is evidenced by the orders placed here and the efforts put forth abroad to come up to the standard of American-made material. In no metallurgical operation has the employment of silica brick spread with such leaps and bounds as in the building of plants for the carbonization of coal, particularly in the byproduct coke oven. Today, in practically all types of oven, the structure above the floor level (except the facings) is of silica, while in the recuperative and in some regenerative types, its use is extended to that portion of the oven below the floor as well. By reason of the fact that there are a number of classes of refractories of higher silica content than the usual so-called fire-clay brick, there is sometimes a misunderstanding as to the class of material referred to as "silica" brick. We here refer only to a brick having a silica content of 94 per cent. or more and made usually from quartzite rock with a small percentage of lime as a binder. The term "silica" brick is sometimes rather loosely applied to brick from highly siliceous clays, or to a quartzite refractory of mingled fire-clay and quartz rock; but such products are not considered in this discussion. : Materials The rock from which practically all high-grade silica brick are made is a true quartzite or metamorphosed sandstone, variously known as

Jan 1, 1916

By J. J. Thomas, J. H. Nead

This investigation was undertaken to determine, if possible, the relation between static and dynamic tensile tests as measured by the work required to break test specimens slowly, in a tensile testing machine, and rapidly, by means of a falling weight. It was hoped that the investigation would throw some light on the role played by ductility under different rates of application of load. In problems of design, it is usually assumed that the moduli of elasticity of all steels are equal; viz., about 30,000,000. The stress-strain diagram within the elastic limit is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 1, where OA is the curve of a hard steel and OB that of a soft steel. If the modulus of elasticity is constant, as assumed, the slope of the line OC

Jan 1, 1922

By R. G. Knickerbocker

THE copper smelter and refinery of The Messina (Transvaal) Development Co. Ltd., at Messina, South Africa, was erected in 1920 and 1921, but initial operations were deferred until late in 1922 on account of the collapse of the copper market in the interim. Because the anticipated production was to be only 20 tons of copper per day from a high-grade matte containing 60 per cent copper, and because the ore did not contain gold or silver in quantities sufficient to pay for separation from the copper bullion, it was decided to design the plant along lines quite different from the modern smelteries treating large quantities of sulfide ores carrying appreciable amounts of gold and silver. The plant was built, therefore, for the production of copper by the Nicholls-James process. By this method two-thirds of the copper matte produced was roasted in a Merton calciner and charged into a bath of the remaining one-third portion of unroasted matte in a reaction furnace. The original design was not only novel in providing for the Nicholls-James process, but also in comparison with new plants built elsewhere, because of factors inherent in the locality. Sources of supply for machinery were very remote; it takes three months after the placing of an order to accomplish delivery of machinery into Messina from the United States. Native labor was available at 30 to 40¢ per 8-hr. shift. These factors permitted plant design which provided no overhead cranes, no matte ladles, no slag pots or other usual mechanical means of transportation between departments. The design resulted in a compact simple plant with furnaces arranged close together and. terraced so as to provide for gravity transfer of molten material from one furnace to another and for manual disposal of products. Fig. 1 shows the relative location of furnaces. The three furnaces are parallel on successively decreasing elevations. A superimposed feed floor was provided above the furnaces. All three furnaces were provided with coal-dust burners served from a Bonnot system of coal-dust transportation, and the waste gases were discharged into waste-heat boilers.

Jan 1, 1932

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became. members during the period Sept. 10, 1918, to Oct. 10, 1918. ADDISON, HERBERT, Vice-pres. and Mgr., Big Horn Collieries Co., 412 Colorado Bldg., Denver, Colo. ALLAN, .ANDREW, JR A. Allan & Son, Harrison, N. J. AMI, HENRY M., Charge of War Metals and Minerals, British Embassy, Washington, D. C. ALTHAR, HOMER C., Mill. Engr., The Lorain Coal & Dock Co., Bridgeport, Belmont Co., Ohio. BASER, JOHN T Pres., J. T. Baker Chemical Co., Phillipsburg, N. J. BARBA, W. P., Lieut. Colonel, Ordnance, U. S. A., 2301 Connecticut Ave., Washington, D. C. BENSON, JOHN PATS Min. Engr., Aurora Cons. Mines Co., Aurora, Nev., BOSWELL, H. F Resident Inspector, Southern Railway System, St. Louis, Mo. BRAUCHER, PETERS., Foundry Mgr., Philadelphia & Reading Ry. Co., Sixth & Perry St., Reading, Pa.

Jan 11, 1918

By William B. Potter

It is a time-honored custom in this, as in other kindred bodies, for the retiring President on giving place to his successor, after a year of official duties which have been the means of directing his attention in a more than usual degree to the work and interests of the Association, to report the results of his observations from this outlook, and the thoughts that may be suggested by the view. In looking out over the many fields of activity within the range of this Institute, the attention may be arrested by special features marking recent progress and development, or such as by their meager outline or lack of important detail stand in less pleasing contrast, or. even form unsightly objects in the view. It may be that the special field and particular work in which one is engaged will, when observed from the more distant standpoint, or in the light of the whole outlook of the profession, assume a different aspect or develop features of new interest and importance. In this way some special object may suggest to the observer a, fitting theme for the occasion. To others, again, an outline of the whole view may seem a more useful subject for study and review. All fields are examined and the wide horizon of the whole profession scanned to note and report whatever is new in knowledge and practice—the new permanent bench-marks that appear near the horizon designating ground definitely located; the stakes which mark reconnoissance into new territory, and even the prominent objects that faintly appear through the mist of the distant atmosphere, and which may serve later on as points of attachment for the advancing lines of survey into the unknown. And besides these, there is the progress of the work in older and nearer fields—what has been attempted, what accomplished,

Jan 1, 1889

By J. H. Nead, J. J. Thomas

This investigation was undertaken to determine, if possible, the relation between static and dynamic tensile tests as measured by the work required to break test specimens slowly, in a tensile testing machine, and rapidly, by means of a falling weight. It was hoped that the investigation would throw some light on the role played by ductility under different rates of application of load. In problems of design, it is usually assumed that the moduli of elasticity of all steels are equal; viz., about 30,000,000. The stress-strain diagram within the elastic limit is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 1, where OA is the curve of a hard steel and OB that of a soft steel. If the modulus of elasticity is constant, as assumed, the slope of the line OC

Jan 1, 1922

By Fred W. Gordon

It is my purpose to call attention to the close approximate correctness of certain coefficients and formulas concerning the flow of gases, and their applicability to the practical construction of flues and

Jan 1, 1886

[Note.—The paper of Mr. Hoffman on " Practical Results in the Magnetic Concentration of Iron-Ore " (page 602); that of Mr. Langdon on "The Use of Magnetic Concentrates in the Port Henry Blast-Furnaaces" (page 599); and those of Mr. Landis on "The Determination of Iron in the Tails from Magnetic Concentration " (page 609) and "Note on Sampling Iron-Ore" (page 611), were all prepared as contributions to this discussion.] The papers of Mr. Langdon and Mr. Hoffman were presented. W. H. Hoffman, Croton Mines, N. Y.: I will add a few remarks, by way of answer to inquiries for further details. The Croton Mines are particularly well located for cheap mining. The ore-bed is very large, and so lies in relation to the railway tracks of the Harlem and other railroads that a very large proportion of our mining for several years to come can be done above these tracks. The concentrating-mill is now 400 feet from where we are working in the quarry. In blasting we never remove less than 2500 tons at a blast,

Jan 1, 1892

By Harry M. Mikami

Chromite is the only ore mineral of metallic chromium and chromium compounds and chemicals. Because of this fact, chromite and chrome ore are used synonymously in trade literature. In commercial market quotations, chrome ore is the term commonly used. Chromite per se, because of properties imparted by its chromium content, is used in refractories and in special purpose moulding sands for metal casting. There are many other minerals containing some, generally minor, amounts of chromium, but none are commercial sources of the element (Thayer, 1956, p. 15). Chromium and chromite have many diverse uses that, directly and indirectly, critically affect vast segments of our modern industrial system. Most important are probably the metallurgical applications wherein chromium is a component of heat, abrasion, corrosion, and oxidation-resistant, and high strength alloys of many types. Stainless steels are the largest volume category of chrome-bearing alloys. Chromium chemicals are used in leather tanning, in pigments, dyes and mordants, printing, :hemica1 process industries, photography, pharmaceuticals, metal plating, pure chromium metal production, and for many other purposes. Chromite is a necessary constituent in basic refractories indispensable for the production of steel, copper, cement, and glass. Under present economic-political conditions, he U.S. and for that matter, North America, has virtually insignificant ore reserves of chromite. There are chromite deposits, as will be described, but they would only be used under highly abnormal conditions if all outside sources were cut off. All chromite used in the U.S. is imported from the eastern hemisphere in which are contained the principal world reserves. As the main suppliers in 1971-72 were the USSR, Turkey, Republic of South Africa, Philippines, and Rhodesia, the strategic nature of chromite is obvious.

Jan 1, 1975

By Hugh M. Roberts

In the spring of 1915, then a 30-year old geologist in the employ of the E. J. Longyear Co., of Minneapolis, Minn., I accompanied prospectors to ex- amine outcrops of supposed nickel ore situated a mile or two in from the shore of a lake in the Kenora district of northwestern Ontario. The deposit proved to be bog iron ore containing traces of nickel. We were stormbound there for three days, a circumstance which gave rise to a tale that was told at our fire one night. It seems that Sandy and Jock, two prospectors, were crossing the bay of a large lake in a canoe. They were bucking headwinds; the waves grew higher. Jock called out from the stern, "Sandy, can ye na pray a little." Sandy pressed his knees a little closer into the bow and, between strokes of his paddle, sought for words, which came haltingly, "Save us this time . . . Oh Lord . . . and we promise . . ." when Jock, peering through the spray sang out, "I would na commit yourself, Sandy, I think I see lond ahead."

Jan 1, 1965

By R. T. McLamore

Lack of sufficient native permeability or skin damage caused while drilling wells for in situ leach mining projects may necessitate stimulating injection and production we1ls to increase the leaching rate to economic levels. Such stimulation processes could include acidization, hydraulic fracturing, or explosive fracturing. This paper describes an explosive fracturing process that is being developed primarily to stimulate the production of oil and gas wells, but may be useful in in situ leach mining projects as well. The process utilizes a liquid explosive that has unique safety features. The chemicals that form the explosive are subdivided into two pumpable, non- detonable components. Technology has been developed to pump these two components independently but simultaneously into the well and blend them together downhole to form the explosive. As such, surface facilities and personnel are not exposed to explosive hazards. The explosive formulations utilized in the process have been subjected to numerous safety and characterization tests and been qualified for use in deep wells with temperatures and pressures up to 250°F and 10,000 psi. The explosive composition can be varied to produce an explosive ranging, energetically, from a blasting agent to a high explosive that can be detonated after injection into a borehole, a porous media or into thin naturally occurring fractures within the roc

Jan 1, 1974

By M. R. Pickus

THE study of the plastic deformation and recrystallization of metals has been the subject of many investigations. In regard to the simple deformational processes, such as tension and compression, the early knowledge gained from studies of polycrystalline material has been supplemented by many significant researches on the behavior of single crystals. Unfortunately, this has not been true for more complicated deformational processes. As far back as 1927, G. I. Taylor1 wrote: It is impossible in the present state of knowledge to do more than give a possible reason why (face-centered cubic) crystals set themselves with a (110) direction in the plane of rolling, and at right angles to the direction of rolling. The explanation of why the orientation of the crystal axes round the transverse direction is what it is, must be left till the distortion of metals, and particularly single crystals of metals in the process of rolling, has been studied in greater detail. That this gap in the systematic study of deformation and recrystalliza-tion has not yet been filled was indicated by C. H. Samans,2 who wrote in 1934 that "only four investigations upon cold-rolled single crystals of any of the face-centered cubic metals have been reported in the literature." Of these four studies, only those of S. Tanaka3 and T. Sakao,4 both of whom worked with aluminum crystals, had quantitative significance. The other two, carried out by F. Wever5 and W. G. Burgers,6 were of a. qualitative nature. It is our hope that the present investigation may contribute some-thing to the knowledge necessary for a rationalization of the origin of rolling textures in terms of the known behavior of single crystals, and may add pertinent information concerning the recrystallization characteristics of deformed single crystals.

Jan 1, 1938

By J. A. Jr. Church

I. EARLY FURNACES. COPPER blast-furnace construction in America has long recognized a general standard in the rectangular mater jacketed shaft with separate forehearth. The details, however, and especially those relating to shaft dimensions, have had to meet a great variety of conditions, and show no uniformity whatever. Selecting a few of the present day Western plants, we find furnace lengths varying from 12.5 to 87 ft., widths at tuyere level from 42 to 84 in., and heights above tuyeres from 5 ft. 4 in. to 22 ft. 4 in. ; and comparing present designs with those of the past, we meet contrasts no less striking. Unlike its transverse section, the length of a furnace has come to depend rather on the size of unit desired than on the requirements of smelting ; and if the question of length be ignored, several of the various existing designs can be grouped together on the basis of a common transverse section. This section, having a width at tuyere level of 56 in. and a height above tuyeres of 18 ft., was developed at Great Falls, and the story of its development contains some interesting features. Ground was broken for the Great Falls works in the spring of 1891. About a year later, the concentrator was able to begin operation, followed within the next few mouths by the Brueckner, reverberatory, and converter departments, and in April, 1893, by the first blast fur-

Jan 7, 1913

By L. T. Sicka, H. N. Thomson

The Tooele plant of the Internationa1 Smelting & Refining Co. is situated at the mouth of Pine canyon, Tooele county, Utah. It is connected with the main line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroad by the Tooele Valley railway, and is about 7 miles from Tooele Junction. Fig. 1 is a general view of the plant. The copper plant has been in operation since July, 1910, arid the first blast furnace at the lead plant was blown in on Feb. 29, 1912. The location of the plant was selected on sloping ground with the idea of using gravity to the fullest extent and thus keeping labor at a minimum. Practically the entire plant is constructed of steel, reinforced concrete, and brick. Bingham ores, both lead and copper, are received over the Utah Consolidated Aerial Tramway. The tram buckets, each containing

Jan 1, 1914

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Jan 1, 1938