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By J. B. Agan, R. J. Fernandes

This paper utilizes the layered-system approach, modified to include areal sweep efficiency, to determine the miscible-slug size required and to predict the perfort7zance of a miscible-slug process in a highly stratified reservoir having a permeability variation of 0.76. The slug size in each layer was determined from theoretical calculations and laboratory data which showed that, to maintain miscibility in the reservoir, the slug size had to be 8.2 per cent of the floodable hydrocarbon pore volume. Economic considerations, however, such as the value of the miscible product injected, the cost of injection and the cost of reprocessing the miscible product, limited the amount of miscible product which could be injected into the lower-permeability layers. This resulted in subjecting only 60 per cent of the reservoir to a slug size sufficient to maintain miscibility. Utilizing the relationship of producing gas-oil ratio and areal sweep efficiency as a function of pore volume injected (as obtained from data published by Dyes, Caudle and Erickson2), the theoretical performance was determined. This prediction is compared with actual performance to date. Actual performance reflects an increasing percentage of tniscible product in the produced fluid to a particular level, which remains static for a short period and then increases again to a higher level. This performance suggests that the reservoir has performed as a layered system. It is concluded that the layered-system approach can be used to predict performance in a highly stratified reservoir and that economic consideration is a limiting factor in determining the amount of the reservoir which can be miscibly swept. INTRODUCTION The Paloma zone in the Paloma oil field, Kern County, Calif., is comprised of several sand members separated by siltstone, shale and/or cherty sections. Rapid facies changes within the zone indicate that the sediments were deposited in a "near shore" environment. As a result, the Paloma sands have a high permeability variation, and the Paloma zone is comprised of several sand reservoirs. Since one of the sand reservoirs containing crude oil was not receiving the benefits of gas injection, consideration was given to recompleting certain wells to isolate the sand in order to perform a miscible-phase injection project and, thereby, to increase its ultimate oil recovery. Before proceeding with the project, a review of the literature was made to determine the miscible-slug size that would be required to maintain miscibility throughout the displacement process. Although the review showed that considerable information was available for homogeneous systems, insufficient information was available to determine slug-size requirements and to predict performances for a highly stratified reservoir. This paper has been prepared to describe the method used to determine the miscible-slug-size requirement and to predict the performance of the miscible-phase injection project initiated in the Paloma oil field. Although the Paloma project has only been in operation since Aug., 1958, sufficient production history has been obtained so that a comparison can be made with the predicted performance. DESCRIPTION OF RESERVOIR The reservoir in which the miscible-phase project was initiated in the Paloma field is shown on Figs. 1 and 2. Reservoir properties are as follows: average sand thickness, 43 ft; porosity, 19.1 per cent; water saturation, 47.2 per cent: oil viscosity, 0.328 cp; reservoir temperature, 250°F; reservoir pressure, 3,500 psi: gas saturation, 21.2 per cent at time of miscible product injection; and total net hydrocarbon pore volume, 19,993,000 reservoir bbl. LIMITATIONS The method described herein utilizes a layer-system approach, where injection into and production from each layer is assumed to be proportional to the layer's fractional capacity. The effects of increased fluid mobility on injection and production rates, in layers which have had breakthrough, are not reflected in this method. There has been considerable controversy over the slug size necessary to maintain miscibility throughout the displacement process. In this method, the slug-size

By T. G. R. Rawlins, L. E. Brosselard

Direct platinum carbon replicas have been used to study substrates prior to growth and after initial nu-cleation of the layer. Replicas have been directly stripped and correlations have been made with other replica techniques. Mechanically polished substrates are very flat with occasional areas of "dirt", which is apparently silicon. When such substrates are etched in hydrochloric acid gas, scratches and hexagonal defects (thought to be polishing compound) are revealed, together with areas of apparent redeposition. Chemically polished substrates are much less flat although much more homogeneous in appearance. Heat treat)nents have no effect. Nuclei deposited on these surfaces, using a normal silicon tetrachloride system, have been examined. Nuclei on mechanically polished subsrates occur in random areas only, whereas on chemically polished surfaces they are more uniformly distributed. THE interest in the study of thin films and now their rapidly expanding use in many fields has increased over a period of years. Much of this current interest, particularly in the field of single-crystal or epitaxial thin films, has derived its stimulus not only from possibilities for application but also from fundamental electron-microscope studies which have indicated the manner of growth of such layers from the initial nuclei.1-5 Previous work involving study of growth processes may be divided into three categories. First, vacuum deposition, primarily of metals, on a variety of substrates has been studied by electron microscopy and electron-diffraction techniques. These have shown the three-dimensional aspect of nucleation and the remarkable liquidlike behavior of the growing nuclei which coalesce to form a complete layer. More recently this work has been expanded in two ways: by growth inside the electron microscope this has obvious advantages for kinetic studies; and by growth in ultrahigh vacuum—much of this work has been done on semiconductors.8-11 It is of interest to note that metals, specifically gold deposited on rock salt, will form only polycrystalline layers in ultrahigh vacuum unless the substrate surface is contaminated.12 In general the mode of growth for vacuum-deposited semiconductor films is the same as that for metal films. The second method of growth that has been studied is that of electrodeposition.13,14 The little that has been published suggests that the mode of growth is similar to the vacuum case, except that irregularities may perturb the electric field and disturb the growth process. The third and last primary method of growing epitaxial layers is by use of chemical methods. These techniques have generated much interest and much has been published on them. Considerable electron-microscope work has been done on the defects in the layers; however comparatively little work has been undertaken on the initial nucleation and early stages of growth. Confining ourselves now exclusively to the case of silicon, Charig et a1.15 have considered the growth of silicon on silicon substrates by hydrogen reduction of trichlorosilane, and studied the films by means of replica and transmission techniques. Subsequently they have studied the same system for growth on quartz,16 and with the addition of pyrolysis of silane on quartz and alumina.17 Also Manasevit el al. have studied deposits using silane and silicon tetrachloride on sapphire.18-14 Finally, in this volume studies of deposition on beryllia and sapphire are reported. Although Revesz and Evans20 have examined complete layers, grown by means of the widely used silicon tetrachloride reaction, no detailed examination similar to that published by Charig and Joyce21 for the trichlorosilane system has been given. Therefore this investigation has examined substrate surfaces prior to growth and then nucleation on these surfaces for the silicon tetrachloride system. EXPERIMENTAL In this work the surfaces have been studied by means of standard replica techniques. Because of the very real problems associated with artifacts introduced,22 different replicas and different cleaning

Jan 1, 1967

By A. G. Jordan, W. Jeitschko, Paul A. Beck

The occurrence qf the V phase structure /Zr,Co,Ge, type) in ternary syste7ns (titanium, zivconium, niobium, lanta1urn) -(nickel, cobalt, iron)-(silicon, germanium) was incestigated. Nine V silicides and four V gertrlanides were found and their lattice constants are reporled. The lattice constants of twenty-one preri-ously identified E phases (TiNiSi type) are given. The average atomic volumes of these phases are discussed in relation to similar binary phases. ThE occurrence of a phase Ti4Ni4Si7 was first reported by Westbrook. DiCerbo, and peat' who gave it the name "V phase". They also reported the existence of an E phase TiNiSi. Subsequently a systematic study was undertaken in this laboratory to explore the occurrence of E' and V phases3 in related ternary systems. In the meantime the crystal structure of the E phase TiNiSi 4 and of the V phase Zr4CO4Ge 75,6 was determined. In the present paper the details of the V phase investigation and the lattice constants of the E and V phases are presented. V PHASES Alloy specimens of approximately 10 to 15 g were prepared by arc melting under argon (99.996 pct Ar) atmosphere. The starting materials were all of purity higher than 99.9 pct, with the exception of cobalt. which contained 0.14 pct Fe as the only major impurity. The weight losses were in all cases less than 2 pct, in most cases less than 1 pct. The samples were encapsulated in fused silica tubes with sufficient argon to yield about 1 atm pressure at the annealing temperature. After the homogenization anneal. Table I. the specimens were water-quenched. A representative portion of each specimen was then examined metallographically (etchant: 20 pct HNO,. 10 pct HF. 25 pct glycerine, 45 pct H20). Only minor amounts of second- and third-phase particles were observed in the specimens listed in Table I, with the exception of alloys Zr4Fe4Si7 and Ta,Fe,Si,. which contained an estimated 10 pct by volume of foreign phases. X-ray powder photographs were taken with a Seeman-Bohlin type focusing camera and Fe-KO radiation. Of the thirty possible combinations of elements in the ternary systems (titanium, zirconium. vanadium. niobium. tantalum)-(iron. cobalt, nickel)-(silicon. germanium) thirteen V phases could be identified. In the remaining seventeen ternary systems and also in the systems Cr-Ni-Si and (M0.W)-(Ni.Co)-Si no V phase was found at the composition 4:4:7 after annealing at temperatures between 900" and 1200'C. For the determination of the lattice constants of the V phases Debye-Scherrer photographs were taken using the asymmetric film arrangement and CrKcr radiation (ka1, = 2.28962A). Using the positional parameters, as determined6 for Zr,Co,Ge,. Table 11. intensity calculations were carried out for each of the V phases with the aid of a computer program.: Thus unequivocal indexing of the diffraction patterns was greatly facilitated. The lattice constants. Table I. were then computed by a least-squares fit of the high-angle lines with f (0) = cos2 Q as extrapolation function. Only few. if any. very weak impurity lines were observed, with the exception of the three iron alloys Zr,Fe,Si7. Zr4Fe,Ge7. and Ta,Fe,Si7. The agreement

Jan 1, 1970

By W. A. Stickney, J. W. Town

Tests demonstrated that aqueous solutions of sodiu~n sulfide would dissolve over 95 pct of the cinnabal- in 5 pct Hg flrotation concentrates and 60 to 90 pct of the cinnabav in low-grade ol-es. Double-leach tests showed that potassiutn sulfide would dissolve 90 pct of the avsenic sulfide in Hg-As satnples and only 1 to 10 pct of the Hg; the sodium sulfide would then dissolve 80 to 90 pct of the rernaining Hg and 30 to 70 pct of the vemaining As. 1 HIS paper describes the extraction, by alkaline sulfide solutions, of mercury from cinnabar-bear ing ores and flotation concentrates. Leaching time and solution temperature had minor effects on mercury extraction when compared to the effects of reagent quantity and ore type and grade. Cinnabar, although readily soluble in sodium sulfide, was only partially soluble in potassium sulfide and essentially insoluble in ammonium sulfide. A double leach process was developed to extract selectively the arsenic from Hg-As products with K2S and to treat the residue with sodium sulfide-hydroxide solutions to extract the mercury.' Mercury was then recovered from the pregnant solutions either by precipitation with metallic aluminum or by electrodeposition. The solubility of HgS in alkaline sulfide solutions was first reported by Volhard in 1878.' The first reported commercial application was made in 1915 when Thornhill applied the method to the treatment of an amalgamation tailing.3 Mullhollen, in 1911. described the chemical reaction of HgS with Na,S and alkaline hydrate to be:4 Most investigators have reported using a 4-pct sodium sulfide and a 1-pct sodium hydroxide soluti~n.3-4 An increase in temperature or excessive dilution of the solution causes the reaction to be reversed. Church Holmes described a similar process used for the extraction of antimony from silver concentrates at the Sunshine Mining Company's mill at Kellogg. Idaho.5 More recently. Erspamer and Wells reported the results of leaching studies on a Hg-Sb ore from Alaska.6 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Leaching tests were made on samples of mercury ore from eight deposits in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In addition. tests were made on flotation concentrates from seven of the samples as well as a flotation concentrate from an operating mill. Since previous investigators reported reagent requirements greatly in excess of that required by the equation HgS + Na2S = HgS . Na2S, initial studies were made on chemically pure HgS. Results showed that the reaction actually required about 1 g of Na,S per g of HgS in an aqueous solution rather than 0.338 g of Na,S as indicated by the equation. To check further the matter of reagent requirements, Na2S and HgS were mixed together in equal mole ratios. Water was then added, a drop at a time, until the components reacted; X-ray diffraction analyses showed no HgS nor Na,S present. The yellow hydrate compound which formed would not redissolve until about three additional mole equivalents of Na,S were added to the solution. This indicated that a stable solution would require at least 4 moles of Na2S for each mole of HgS. While these implications may be valid for pure HgS, the possibility of entirely different results caused by the existence of other elements present in ores and concentrates was recognized. Consequently, experiments of the same order were made on samples of a flotation concentrate from a producing mill. The concentrate, containing about 18 pct

Jan 1, 1962

By J. H. Hamilton, J. R. Lewis, J. H. Dismant, W. M. Fassell

RECENTLY this laboratory undertook the task of preparing some low carbon metallic cobalt by the carbon reduction of precipitated cobalt oxides. The oxides came in two lots and had the compositions given in Table I. Industrially, cobalt rondels' are made by the carbon reduction of cobalt oxide in small reverberatory furnaces at temperatures near but not above 1050 °C. This is a slow and tedious small batch process but does give cobalt metal which is low in carbon (1 pct C). Inasmuch as these cobalt oxides were relatively low in copper and iron it was decided to reduce them with petroleum carbon in a small three-phase electric arc furnace of about 3 to 5 Ib of metal capacity. It was hoped such a procedure would save considerable time and perhaps also indicate an improved commercially feasible process. The furnace was preheated by using small pieces of carbon electrodes to maintain the arc until a temperature of 1500°C was reached. The broken pieces of electrodes were then removed and 500 g of the cobalt oxides and 60 to 100 g of petroleum coke added. At the end of the reduction reaction, a high lime flux was added to the furnace to facilitate the removal of sulphur. Due to the fineness of the cobalt oxide powder used and also to the presence of chlorides there was considerable dust lost in charging the furnace. This was overcome by preparing briquettes composed of the cobalt oxides, charcoal, and a little bentonite to serve as a binder. The results obtained are summarized in Table 11, which shows that the cobalt metal produced in the arc furnace was high in carbon varying from 2.5 to 3.5 pct. This, of course, is much too high. For certain uses, such as in the preparation of permanent magnets, the carbon content of cobalt must be low. It was necessary therefore to find an effective method of reducing the carbon content of the cobalt that had been prepared in the arc furnace. Van Arkel3 recommends the use of Co2O3 as a means of removing carbon from cobalt. Experiments by the authors indicate that carbon is removed with difficulty by this method. Other methods used, including lancing of the molten high carbon cobalt with a jet of oxygen, proved to be ineffective. The method finally used makes use of the fact that cobalt metal is decarburized by carbon dioxide at the temperature of the molten metal. Two methods were used: 1—carbon dioxide was bubbled up through the molten cobalt, and 2— molten cobalt was maintained in a carbon dioxide atmosphere. In the first method the gas was introduced below the surface of the molten metal by means of a quartz tube. A high frequency induction furnace was used to keep the cobalt molten in both of these experiments. This kept the metal somewhat agitated and no doubt was an important factor in hastening the decarburization 'process by the second method. Both methods gave satisfactory results as shown in Table 111. An interesting observation in connection with this 'work was that a small sample of carburized cobalt metal could be decarburized by heating it with an acetylene torch adjusted to give an oxidizing flame. This may have been due to the presence of carbon dioxide in the products of combustion. Samples of molten high carbon steel were decarburized by the same method and it is suggested that nickel and perhaps manganese can be decarburized in a similar manner. Additional work, including rate studies and other theoretical aspects of this problem, is in progress in this laboratory.

Jan 1, 1953

By C. F. Baes, H. H. Kellogg

The effect of dissolved sulphur on the surface tension of liquid copper has been measured by a sessile-drop method at 1120°C. Sulphur is highly "surface active" in liquid copper; the surface tension lowering is about 650 dynes per cm for a sulphur content of 0.6 pct. The degree of adsorption of sulphur on the liquid copper surface has been calculated, and various models of the surface layer have been tested against the results. THE science and technology of surface chemistry and physics at room temperature are relatively advanced, and the engineer possesses a background of information that allows him to predict and control many phenomena—such as frothing, emulsifica-tion, wetting of solids by liquids, flow through capillaries, adsorption, mineral flotation, penetration of porous bodies by liquids—which are related to the behavior at interfaces. Surface phenomena in high temperature systems are probably of equal importance to the metallurgist and ceramist, but at present are incompletely understood. Frothing of liquid slags, penetration of refractories by liquid metals and slags, infiltration of powder metallurgy "skeletons" by liquid metals, bonding of metals to ceramic oxides in the manufacture of "cermets," wetting of one metal by another for purposes of soldering and welding, are but a few of the many phenomena of metallurgy that are controlled by surface behavior. Concerning the most elementary of surface properties—the gas-liquid surface tension—the existing data on liquid metals are inadequate. For the surface tension of "pure" metals the results of different investigators differ by 10 or 20 pct. The role of surface-active agents in liquid metals is relatively unknown, and it is not unlikely that the discrepancy in the values for the surface tension of pure metals is due to the presence of traces of surface-tension-lowering impurities in the samples. Based on analogy to room-temperature systems, the highly surface-active impurities in liquid metals should be elements or compounds of limited solubility in the liquid metal and possessing considerably weaker in-termolecular bonding forces than the metal itself. The nonmetals of the V, VI, and VII groups of the periodic table might be expected to act in this way. The experimental work in this paper represents a study of the surface tension of pure liquid copper in hydrogen at 1120°C, and the effect of dissolved sulphur (which is a strongly surface-active agent in liquid copper) on the surface tension of copper. The Gibbs equation has been applied to the results and an attempt made to correlate the surface tension behavior with two models of the interfacial layer. The sessile-drop method for surface-tension measurement at high temperatures which was used in this investigation has been described by several investigators.1,2 It involves the measurements of the dimensions of a stationary liquid drop on a horizontal surface. From these dimensions and the liquid density, the surface tension of the liquid may be calculated either by means of various approximate formulas, or more accurately by means of the Bash-forth and Adams tables.- or liquid drops which exhibit a contact angle greater than 90°, by far the simplest dimensions to measure are those indicated in Fig. 1, i.e., the diameter of the maximum horizontal cross section (2X) and the maximum height (Z) above this plane. In order to calculate the contact angle and the volume of the drop, the diameter at the base of the drop (2a) and the total height (h) also must be measured. Upon investigation of the literature, the authors failed to discover a concise statement of the accuracy of the method when used in conjunction with the Bashforth and Adams tables, hence a careful examination of the tables was made and the curve shown in Fig. 2 was constructed. The "error factor," plotted as the ordinate, is the factor by which the

Jan 1, 1954

By C. S. Giggins, F. S. Pettit

The oxidation properties of Ni-Cr alloys with fine grains, coarse grains, and deformed surface layers have been studied at temperatures of 900" and 1100°C in 0.1 atm of oxygen. The oxidation rates of alloys containing between 10 and 30 wt pct Cr have been found to be dependent upon the grain size of the alloy. Finegrained alloys had smaller oxidation rates than coarsegvained alloys because of the selective oxidation of chromium at alloy grain boundaries. In this compositional range alloys with deformed surface layers behaved similar to fine-grained alloys due to recrys-tallization of the deformed surface layer. In the preceding paper1 it was found that during the oxidation of Ni-Cr alloys, the volume fraction of precipitated Cr2O3 could be greater at alloy grain boundaries than at other areas of the alloy surface. In the case of alloys with chromium concentrations equal to or greater than 30 pct,* the volume fraction of Cr2O3 *AIL compositions are given as weight percent unless specified otherwise. precipitated at grain boundaries and within grains on the alloy surface both exceeded the critical amount required for lateral growth of the Cr2O3 particles and the surfaces of these alloys were completely covered with a continuous, external layer of Cr203 during oxidation. However, in the case of alloys with chromium concentrations between approximately 5 to 30 pct, the volume fraction of precipitated Cr2O3 exceeded the critical value required for external scale formation only at grain boundaries.but not within the interior of the grains. Consequently, the surfaces of these alloys had external scales of Cr3O3 over the grain boundaries but internal Cr2O3 subscales with external scales of NiO away from the grain boundaries. Under these latter conditions, it was found that chromium could diffuse laterally in the alloy from those areas covered with an external layer of Cr2O3, i.e., grain boundaries, to areas where the Cr2O3 was present as a subscale. This diffusion of chromium resulted in an increase in the volume fraction of Cr2O3 precipitated in the sub-scale zone and continuous layers of Cr2O3 could be formed at the subscale front in these regions. For the alloys used in the previous studies,' continuous layers of Cr2O3 were formed on Ni-20Cr alloys in the subscale regions after approximately 30 hr of oxidation at 900°C. For shorter periods of oxidation, the Cr2O3 layer was semicontinuous with the continuous portion at the subscale front emanating from points where the Cr2O3 had been formed as an external scale over alloy grain boundaries. Some lateral growth of a Cr2O3 layer in the subscale region was observed on Ni-15Cr and even Ni-10Cr alloys but this layer was never continuous after 30 hr of oxidation. These results indicate that the selective oxidation of chromium in Ni-Cr alloys with chromium contents between 5 to 30 pct may be dependent upon the grain size of the alloy. Fine-grained specimens in this compositional range should have a larger fraction of the surface covered with external Cr2O3 than coarsegrained specimens and the subscale areas required to be sealed via lateral diffusion of chromium should be smaller. It is therefore to be expected that a continuous layer of Cr2O3 can be formed on alloys in this compositional range after short periods of oxidation providing the alloy grain-size is sufficiently small. bo studieS2,3 have established that the oxidation behavior of alloys can be significantly influenced by pretreatments which produce mechanically deformed surfaces. It has been found that deformed surfaces usually promote the selective oxidation of elements in alloys and it is believed that these effects are due to rapid diffusion of elements in the deformed layer. In view of the previous results,' which showed that alloy grain boundaries may play an important role in the selective oxidation of chromium in Ni-Cr alloys, deformed surfaces may promote the selective oxidation of elements in alloys as a result of the numerous grain boundaries formed on the alloy surfaces via recrys-tallization during heating to the oxidation temperature. The purpose of the present studies was to determine the effect of alloy grain size and surface deformation on the selective oxidation of chromium in Ni-Cr alloys at temperatures of 900" and 1100°C in 0.1 atm of oxygen. EXPERIMENTAL The average grain diameter of the alloys used in the previous studies1 was not less than 0.04 mm and alloys with compositions between 5 and 30 pct chromium had average grain diameters between 0.04 and 0.14 mm. Since the oxidation kinetics were already available for these relatively coarse-grained alloys, it was desirable to use these same alloys in the present studies. The surfaces of the alloys listed in Table I of the previous paper were deformed by using a Model F S.S. White Industrial Airbrasive Unit, which delivered a controlled mixture of 25 µ Al2O3 particles in a stream of dry air at high velocity against the surface of a specimen. The amount of surface deformation produced by this treatment was not determined but a re-crystallized layer about 15 µ thick was formed upon annealing deformed specimens. The grain size at the surface of the specimens was reduced to an average grain diameter of 0.01 mm by annealing the deformed specimens, i.e., grit-blasted,

Jan 1, 1970

By J. V. Richards

(Canal Zone Meeting, November, 1910,) THE Altar district, State of Sonora, Mexico, is for the most part a desert with but little rain-fall and few running streams. On account of this scarcity of water it is necessary for the natives to " dry-wash" the placer-gravel, and the object of the present paper is to describe some of the more common Mexican dry-washing devices. My observations were confined to a property known as Las Palomas placers, 15 miles from the Gulf of California and about 150 miles south of the United States border; a brief description of which property may be of interest as illustrating what is, perhaps, a typical Sonora dry placer. It is said that as long as a century ago the Yaqui Indians discovered rich cement-gravel, known as argo masa, at Las Palomas, and that there has been a more or less steady production of gold from the property ever since. The argo masa is a fairly-coarse gravel, the pebbles being quite firmly held together with a lime cement. Gold is scattered through this cement in particles ranging from fine specks to pieces several grams in weight, and occasional large nuggets are encountered. The contents vary so widely that it is difficult to estimate the average value, but returns of from $10 to $50 per cubic yard are common, and it is doubtful if the Indians considered anything less than from $4 to $5 a yard as "pay dirt." This argo masa occurs in channels varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet, and in width up to 300 ft.. These channels are continuous and are probably ancient stream-beds. They are for the most part covered with an over-burden of a more recent gravel, varying from 30 to 50 ft. thick, and the fact that this over-burden contains values as high as $1.50 per cubic yard, and yet was not worked by the Indians, shows that their idea of what constituted pay-ground was high.

Apr 1, 1911

By L. F. Porter, G. J. Dienes

The effect of netltron irracliation on mart ensite transformation in the iron-nickel system was studied by means of electrical resistance and magnetic induction measuremertts. Irradiation lowers the M8 temperature of the allay, causes changes in the electrical and magnetic properties of the high-temperature phase which indicate either an accelemtion of phase separation or a clustering of nickel, and enhances strain recovery on specimens partially transformed to martensite prior to irradiation. Possible mechanisms to account for the effects; are discussed. 1 HERE is a good deal of evidence to indicate that neutron irradiation is capable of affecting phase changes in metals and alloys. While the mechanism of the effect often is not well understood, such studies hold promise of improving our understanding not only of irradiation damage but also of the phase changes involved. To date systematic and detailed investigations have been made of the influence of nuclear radiation on order-disorder transformations in the copper-gold, nickel-manganese, and copper-zinc system, and on precipitation reactions in the copper-iron, nickel-beryllium, and copper-beryllium system.' These solid-state reactions are diffusion controlled and the results can be explained largely on the basis of enhanced diffusion due to the presence of irradiation produced vacancies. Reversion of low-temperature eutectoid phases to the high-temperature phase has been observed in the fissionable uranium-molybdenum and uranium-niobium systems.2 Here it is necessary and logical to postulate a displacement spike mechanism to account for the effect. The only case of irradiation induced diffusionless transformation in metals is the allo-tropic transformation of p to a tin reported by Flee-man and Dienes. 3 They found that neutron irradiation markedly decreases the incubation time for transformation, but the mechanisnl is not well understood. Another diffusionless transformation which one might expect to be influenced by neutron irradiation is the martensite transformation. This transformation is known to be sensitive to strain, structural hardening, and the presence of imperfections.6,7 Since the transformation is diffusionless, one also

Jan 1, 1960

By John C. Draper

The principal object of an underground coal mine transportation sys tem is to move coal from the face where it is produced to the outside of the mine where it is prepared for market. In addition to the movement of coal, a transportation system must also move supply materials to the inside; it must move men in and out of the mine ; and it must move rock and other debris out of the mine for disposal. Usually, mine haulage is divided into three categories named for the various areas of the mine served: 1) Face Haulage. This is used at face from the mining machine to the intermediate transport system. 2) Intermediate or Secondary Haulage. Generally this is used between face haulage and main haulage. Sometimes this is merely an extension of the main haulage. 3) Main Haulage. This extends from the secondary haulage to the outside and is usually either a track or conveyor system, sometimes a combination of both. Transportation modes of coal in the various areas pose different problems, but the whole system must be synchronized. For instance, at the face the coal should be removed quickly from the various places to facilitate the movement of machines, whereas the intermediate system just passes the same coal on to the main transportation system. Selection of the transportation system must be based on the seam height, mining methods used to extract the coal, capacity required, ease of coal handling, and haulage efficiency. When driving rooms, mine cars can be used. They often simplify supply haulage and rock handling because they can also handle these items. Conveyors could be used and would have a greater haulage capacity but they cannot handle supplies easily or segregate the rock. When using a different mining method, such as longwall, mine cars cannot be used because there is not sufficient space to move the cars at the face nor can the cars haul the coal without delays which would cause excessive losses in production. As for ease of handling

Jan 1, 1973

By Orville R. Lyons, A. C. Richardson

F. X. Ferney—We are pleased that this paper was presented at this meeting and thank Mr. Richardson and Mr. Lyons for their effort and work in preparing it. We agree with the authors that it was unfortunate that more comprehensive data were not available when the paper was prepared, this being particularly true since we had no knowledge that the paper was being written and could not make available data which were in our process files. Further, it is our opinion that because the data are not sufficiently comprehensive the results which are presented are erratic and will lead to false conclusions. As we see it, there are three Specific reasons why the data which are presented cannot be considered accurate. 1. The preparation plant was not at equilibrium while the samples were being taken. This is indicated by the fact that the percent of solids in the circulating water varied from 3.9 pct to 10.7 pct during the period when the plant was sampled. 2. We do not believe that the samples of Bird feed which were taken were representative and could indicatc the true feed to the filter. Evidence of this is shown in the data where the dewatered product leaving the centrifuge contains more coarse material than the feed to it, that is, material which is +6-mesh in size. 3. We question if the data concerning screen analysis in the fine sizes is accurate and would conclude (from the data) that these tests were made by a dry-screen method. We have found that wet screening is always necessary to obtain a true picture of the quantity of —200-mesh fines which is present. The test work described in the Lyons-Richardson paper was conducted some time ago and the tests were carried on during a period when the preparation plant had not ironed out all of their start-up problems. Since that time most of these problems have been corrected and now this is a smooth running, well-operated prep-

Jan 1, 1951

By Orville R. Lyons, A. C. Richardson

F. X. Ferney—We are pleased that this paper was presented at this meeting and thank Mr. Richardson and Mr. Lyons for their effort and work in preparing it. We agree with the authors that it was unfortunate that more comprehensive data were not available when the paper was prepared, this being particularly true since we had no knowledge that the paper was being written and could not make available data which were in our process files. Further, it is our opinion that because the data are not sufficiently comprehensive the results which are presented are erratic and will lead to false conclusions. As we see it, there are three Specific reasons why the data which are presented cannot be considered accurate. 1. The preparation plant was not at equilibrium while the samples were being taken. This is indicated by the fact that the percent of solids in the circulating water varied from 3.9 pct to 10.7 pct during the period when the plant was sampled. 2. We do not believe that the samples of Bird feed which were taken were representative and could indicatc the true feed to the filter. Evidence of this is shown in the data where the dewatered product leaving the centrifuge contains more coarse material than the feed to it, that is, material which is +6-mesh in size. 3. We question if the data concerning screen analysis in the fine sizes is accurate and would conclude (from the data) that these tests were made by a dry-screen method. We have found that wet screening is always necessary to obtain a true picture of the quantity of —200-mesh fines which is present. The test work described in the Lyons-Richardson paper was conducted some time ago and the tests were carried on during a period when the preparation plant had not ironed out all of their start-up problems. Since that time most of these problems have been corrected and now this is a smooth running, well-operated prep-

Jan 1, 1951

By Michel T. Halbouty

The area for which oil and gas development is reported for 1938 in this paper is larger than that covered by the report for 1937, in that besides Duval, Jim Hogg, McMullen, Starr, Webb and Zapata Counties, comprising the Laredo district, this paper also includes the South Corpus Christi district, which is composed of the following counties: San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Kenedy, Brooks, Willacy, Hidalgo and Cameron, all heretofore included in A.I.M.E. Gulf Coast reports. In the map, Fig. 1, the area known as South Texas is represented by the counties south of the heavy black line. Production in the South Corpus Christi district, which covers an area that extends inland for 50 miles and follows the coast line, is primarily in zones ranging from the Catahoula, through the Frio sands, into the Vicksburg horizon. General exploration is done mainly with geophysics because in this district production is directly dependent upon structural conditions. In the Laredo district most of the production is from sand lenses; therefore, because these shallow sand lenses represent old shore lines which are monoclinic in character, the most satisfactory method of exploration in the Laredo district is drilling. This type of production centers around Duval County and follows a northeast-southwest trend along the Mirando district. Although drilling operations showed a decline from the preceding year, 1938 was highly successful as far as new discoveries and developments were concerned, and results of the year's operations should have an important effect on the near future trend of exploration and drilling. Besides the discovery of several new fields and many new sands in established fields, 1938 saw the discovery of a new Vicksburg sand trend and the first marine drilling off the South Texas Gulf Coast. Many new fields were discovered during the year, but only a few were subjected to an extensive drilling program. Several already established fields, especially in the Laredo district, received a large amount of drilling as new sands and extensions enlarged the producing areas, a

Jan 1, 1939

By Michel T. Halbouty

The area for which oil and gas development is reported for 1938 in this paper is larger than that covered by the report for 1937, in that besides Duval, Jim Hogg, McMullen, Starr, Webb and Zapata Counties, comprising the Laredo district, this paper also includes the South Corpus Christi district, which is composed of the following counties: San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Kenedy, Brooks, Willacy, Hidalgo and Cameron, all heretofore included in A.I.M.E. Gulf Coast reports. In the map, Fig. 1, the area known as South Texas is represented by the counties south of the heavy black line. Production in the South Corpus Christi district, which covers an area that extends inland for 50 miles and follows the coast line, is primarily in zones ranging from the Catahoula, through the Frio sands, into the Vicksburg horizon. General exploration is done mainly with geophysics because in this district production is directly dependent upon structural conditions. In the Laredo district most of the production is from sand lenses; therefore, because these shallow sand lenses represent old shore lines which are monoclinic in character, the most satisfactory method of exploration in the Laredo district is drilling. This type of production centers around Duval County and follows a northeast-southwest trend along the Mirando district. Although drilling operations showed a decline from the preceding year, 1938 was highly successful as far as new discoveries and developments were concerned, and results of the year's operations should have an important effect on the near future trend of exploration and drilling. Besides the discovery of several new fields and many new sands in established fields, 1938 saw the discovery of a new Vicksburg sand trend and the first marine drilling off the South Texas Gulf Coast. Many new fields were discovered during the year, but only a few were subjected to an extensive drilling program. Several already established fields, especially in the Laredo district, received a large amount of drilling as new sands and extensions enlarged the producing areas, a

Jan 1, 1939

By J. V. Richards

The Altar district, State of Sonora, Mexico, is for the most part a desert with but little rain-fall and few running streams. On account of this scarcity of water it is necessary for the natives to " dry-wash" the placer-gravel, and the object of the present gaper is to describe some of the more commoil Mexican dry-mashing devices. My observations were confined to a property known as Las Palomas placers, 15 miles from the Gulf of California and about 150 miles south of the United States border; a brief description of which property may be of interest as illustrating what is, perhaps, a typical Sonora dry placer. It is said that as long as a century ago the Yaqui Indians discovered rich cement-gravel, known as argo masa, at Las Palomas, and that there has been a more or less steady production of gold from the property ever since. The argo masa, is a fairly-coarse gravel, the pebbles being quite firmly held together with a lime cement. Gold is scattered through this cement in particles ranging from fine specks to pieces several grams in weight, and occasional large nuggets are encountered. The contents vary so widely that it is difficult to estimate the average value, but returns of from $10 to $50 per cubic yard are common, and it is doubtful if the Indians considered anything less than from $4 to $5 a yard as "pay dirt.'' This ar-90 masa, occurs in channels varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet, and in width up to 300 ft. These channels are continuous and are probably ancient stream-beds. They are for the most part covered with an over-burden of a more recent gravel, varying from 30 to 50 ft. thick, and the fact that this over-burden contains values as high as $1.50 per cubic yard, and yet was not worked by the Indians, shows that their idea of what constituted mas high.

Jan 1, 1911

By J. Ruzicka

In creep testing, material is subjected to a constant load, preferably at a constant temperature, and its rate of deformation is measured. The method of loading can be of various types but in this paper only creep testing under tensile load will be considered. The ordinary tensile test is essentially a comparison test in conditions that frequently hear little or no relation to those under which the test material is to be used in service. The purpose of creep tests is to measure the strength of the test material at slow rates of deformation that more nearly approach the rates realized in service. One purpose of this paper is to illustrate that the creep test, in addition to its value as a service test, is superior to the ordinary tensile test as a sensitive tool for the comparison of certain metals in investigative testing. The other purpose is to describe equipment having distinctive features of design that make it especially suitable for such tests. Representative data obtained with this equipment on a group of rolled zinc-base materials are given. These data are compared with those from practical comparison tests of the creep type on weatherstrip fabricated from the same group of materials. The comparison illustrates the value of the fast creep test and of the equipment. The Equipment The creep equipment consists essentially of a tank containing a constant-temperature oil bath in which the creep of 14 specimens, loaded by means of levers, is measured by means of one movable extensometer. Figs. 1, 2 and 3 illustrate its general construction and appearance. Constant-temperalure Oil Balh.—A common constant-temperature bath requiring only one temperature-controlling equipment for a number of specimens was chosen as the best means of fulfilling the requirements of low cost and compactness. In addition, this allows the testing of a group of specimens under identical temperature conditions.

Jan 1, 1937

By C. D. Starr

IT is well known that the martensite reaction can be induced to occur isothermally above the M, temperature by plastic deformation of an alloy in its austenitic state, and also that as the test temperature is increased above the M. temperature, plastic deformation under a given set of conditions merely causes additional slip with a corresponding tendency toward the formation of less martensite per unit of strain. Thus it appears that a maximum temperature exists above which martensite cannot be formed isothermally by plastic deformation. This temperature is commonly designated as the equilibrium temperature Te. Attempts to determine experimentally the equilibrium temperature have indicated that a critical temperature is observed, under a given set of conditions, above which martensite cannot be formed isothermally by plastic deformation. But the observation of a "so called" critical temperature, Te, should not be confused with the equilibrium temperature, Te. In order to clarify this anomaly, true stress-strain curves were obtained for a series of type 304 stainless steel specimens (manufacturer's analysis, 0.08 pct C, 18 to 20 pct Cr, 8 to 10 pct Ni, balance Fe) over the temperature range 67" to 300°K.' Since martensite is magnetic, a quantitative measure of the amount of martensite that was produced by plastic deformation was obtained by determining the magnetic permeability as a function of strain. The results of these tests are given in Fig. 1. They appear to indicate that a plastic critical point does exist at about 240°K for the stainless steel under investigation here. But that 240 °K is not the equilibrium temperature nor even a true plastic critical temperature can be seen from Fig. 2 wherein the permeability of the same material is shown to increase with cold rolling at 293 OK. Consequently the observation of a "so called" plastic critical temperature is dependent on the mode of deformation and has no theoretical significance. Acknowledgment This work was sponsored by the Office of Naval Research. Permission to publish this note is gratefully acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1954

By Jay R. Burns

Two magnesium sand-casting alloys are commonly favored in the United States. These are referred to as H and C alloys (Dow Chemical Co.) or AM265 and AM260 alloys (American Magnesium Corporation). Both are of an aluminum-zinc-manganese type. H alloy contains 6 per cent aluminum and 3 per cent zinc and is characterized by relatively good toughness. C alloy contains g per cent aluminum and 2 per cent zinc and is employed where high yield strength and pressure tightness are required. Examination of magnesium castings poured in Europe and England,1,2 however, demonstrates that H and C alloys are replaced by A8 and AZ91, respectively. That is, A8 represents a magnesium alloy having superior toughness while AZ91 is suitable for high yield strength and pressure-tight applications. The basic difference between the American and European alloys is that the foreign alloys employ a somewhat higher aluminum content and less zinc than is found in H and C alloys. The mechanical properties of the alloys, when divided into high and low-aluminum groups, are quite similar, as determined from separately cast foundry-control type test bars.3 In this paper the decrease of mechanical properties caused by any given amount of microporosity is measured for H, C, A8, and AZ91 alloys. The relative susceptibility of each of the four alloys to microporosity is also determined. Typical mechanical properties and nominal chemical analyses are reported in Table I. [ ] The apparent similarities between the two alloys in each group have led to considerable discussion as to the relative merits of each of the compositions.2 Popular points for comparison between the alloys have been the relative susceptibility of each of the four alloys to microporosity5 and the effect of this microporosity on their mechanical properties. It is primarily intended, in this paper, to show the

Jan 1, 1946

By Joseph Pogue

OVER a period of years the writer has presented a number of studies1 on various aspects of proration, in a progressive attempt to analyze critically and constructively the economic complexities of this interesting institu-tion, which in a decade has revolutionized the economics of oil production in the United States. In the course of the investigations leading to these papers, the changing nature of proration and the principles under-lying its evolution have gradually become clear, so that it is now possible to depart from the analytical method and to construct a synthesis of the steps that, if furthered by the industry, should carry proration past the economic hazards that still surround it to the goal of maximizing the value of the petroleum resource to the industry and the public alike. NATURE OF PRORATION Proration literally means the allocation of demand among competing producers on a pro rata basis, but the term now carries a much broader significance for it is employed to describe the entire process by which the production of crude oil in the United States is regulated. There is naturally much confusion of thought on the subject, for proration is an evolving system of control based upon principles of conservation and equity and embracing a body of practices that are tending to adjust themselves to the needs of the situation but are subjected to varying and divergent influences in the process. As it is now constituted, proration is a planned production measure designed to prevent waste, insure ratable takings, and balance supply and demand. The procedure is administered by State regulatory bodies through use of the police power of the States under authority of State conservation laws; the practice is supported by a considerable degree of voluntary conformance on the part of operators; and the Federal Government has accorded its cooperation by providing advisory quotas, circumscribing imports, checking movements of hot

Jan 1, 1939

By Norman Gerald

THE lack of a continuous operating balance in petroleum refining, which is analyzed in this paper, is by no means a feature solely of this division of the oil industry. Serious disequilibria of a capital as well as an operating nature exist both in the producing and marketing departments, while problems in the former and to some degree the latter are complicated by political involvements. Attention has previously been directed to the unstabilizing influence of present proration formulas in stimulating unnec-essary drilling.1 While equilibrium in petroleum refining operations has been fairly well maintained in the past decade, examination of departures may prove fruitful. Economic analysis is the application of time and motion study to the functioning of management, rather than labor. Properly applied it may reveal changes in policies that would increase the utility of the properties and facilities of the industry for stockholders, employees and the public, while contributing a stabilizing influence to the general economy. The study of economic equilibrium is essentially one of measurement and interpretation, requiring adequate data and the development of a tech-nique of analysis that employs statistical and mathematical methods as a supplement to the broad descriptive phase of economics. Economic equilibrium in petroleum refining is a dual concept. It embraces both the over-all balance between total storage and total demand for major products and the internal balance between the demands and inventories of the various products. The latter is the more complex of the two for it is concerned with proportionating the supplies of the several products stemming from the joint source to the demands for the individual products which are subject to wide variations. All the products are essentially nondurable goods, and they are used both by producers and consumers but in varying proportions. Motor fuel is very largely a consumer's good, while residual fuel oil is almost entirely a producer's good, the other products falling between these extremes. The peculiar-

Jan 1, 1939