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By T. D. Jones

MUCH the same story can be told for the lead industry for the year 1945 as for the three previous years. In response to inquiries as to new developments, invariably the answer has been, "No new developments-our men either too busy with the man-power problem or trying to get production out." Time and efforts of industry have been concentrated for the most part on war or readjustment problems. Now that V-E and V-1 day have passed, the lead industry can justly be proud of its record in World War II. As in previous wars, lead played an important role and one of its most spectacular uses was in the production of the atomic bomb. We read that the part lead played was rather obscure, but as a protective agent, lead played a most significant role. "Since the materials in the Pile Plant are intensely radioactive, all storage and handling must be done behind thick concrete walls or lead shields. The material is never seen and all operations are auto matically controlled by a foolproof remote control system especially designed for this purpose." (Chews. & Met., Sept. 1945.) When our armies invaded the European theater of war and made a landing on Normandy beach, gasoline and oil for the motive power were furnished through miles of armored lead pipe. This amaz-

Jan 1, 1946

By Henry Wurtz

HERACLITUS, a sage of antiquity, called the dark philosopher, who refused a throne, preferring a hermit's cell, propounded, twenty-four centuries since, the maxim : [ ] War (or strife) engenders all things. This, though probably intended by Heraclitus to apply especially to the internal forces of nature, is often said, with equal reason, of the affairs of men. Controversial strife, whether fortunately or unfortunately, is a crucible through which all new discoveries in science, and all technical applications of science must pass-a test which they must all endure before they can become so vitalized as to germinate, so to speak, take root in the human mind, grow tip, and overspread the earth. The greater the number and the power of the elements arrayed against such a growth, and of the influences hostile thereto, the greater should be the inherent vitality of the germ, the more strenuous, skilful, and persistent its cultivators and upholders. During the decade last past we have had, in spite of the severe stringency of the times, an active growth of this kind in progress, whose prospective importance it would now be difficult to overrate. This is the movement which has for its motive the idea that, generally speaking, fuel should be gaseous in form, and which has for its goal the introduction into general public use of gaseous products, made by cheap and rapid processes and on a gigantic scale, distributed throughout our cities and towns in distribution-systems which shall be proportionately gigantic, and sold at prices which will bring such fuel within the means of the poorest householders. Personally, for ten years past, the writer has never failed, on occasions public or private, to urge his belief that the realization of this idea, deemed by him a certainty of the future, will bring about

Jan 1, 1880

By W. E. Howlett, R. L. Slobod

Jan 1, 1965

By Joseph Moses Botbol

This study was designed to demonstrate the viability of using high-frequency radio transmission as a means of communications between a remote field camp and a time- sharing computer system. A field camp near Johnstown, Pa., was linked by high- frequency radio to a base station 160 miles to the southeast in Vienna, Va. The base station was in turn linked by telephone to a time-sharing computer system near Los Angeles, Cal. Error-free data transmission utilized highly stable receivers and transmitters, forward error correction, and dual-frequency diversity. Three geologic applications programs resident in the Los Angeles computer were executed from a graphics cathode ray tube terminal in the field. Bulk data equivalent in volume to 4 days of typical spectrographic analytical work generated by one spectrograph and one spectrophotometer were transmitted from the field to the base station. All programs, were executed successfully, and all data were transmitted error free.

Jan 1, 1976

By Paul M. Tyler

Mineral raw materials, because they are essential to our industrial prosperity and military strength, must be made available in substantial quantities regardless of cost. Variations in the cost of procuring minerals, as compared with the cost of obtaining other commodities, and changes in the cost of production of different minerals relative to one another, will naturally influence the quantities of a given mineral item that can be marketed readily. However, in the last analysis, the cost of winning minerals from the ground usually constitutes only a small fraction of the value of the end-use products and services derived from them. The miner's share of the cost of a typewriter, telephone circuit, or even a modem office building, is almost insignificant. Far more important to the ultimate consumer, therefore, than any minor saving in cost is the assurance of ample supplies of the minerals needed to aliment our expanding economy. To create a successful metal mining operation involves (1 ) the discovery and systematic development of a mineral deposit, (2) extraction of the ore, (3) the mechanical and metallurgical processing to eliminate worthless or harmful impurities, and (4) the profitable disposal of the product. The fist step of the technological process belongs chiefly in the realm of the geologist, the second is a mining engineer's job, the third is mainly up to the millmen and extractive metallurgists; whereas the fourth and equally important step poses a commercial problem that has aspects in common with the marketing of other products. Ore finding is far from being an exact science. There is no mathematical criterion for evaluating the efficiency of prospecting and exploration. Lady Luck shares the honors or assumes part of the blame along with the prospector and geologist. Marketing like- wise involves factors that seemingly defy engineering analysis. Although the other steps can be measured with some degree of mathematical accuracy, even they tend to vary so widely in basic principle, as well as in

Jan 1, 1964

By AIME AIME

IT IS impossible in this short sketch to give a detailed description of each part of the plant at Bethlehem, therefore, only such facts will be touched on as are necessary to give a general idea of the works. The extent of the plant, and the fact that the units making up the various departments are located in different parts of the works, make it impracticable to mention the departments in any regular order with regard to their location. They are, therefore, mentioned approximately in the order of their relation to each other with reference to their functions in the making of the various products.

Jan 1, 1924

By J. C. Melrose, W. R. Foster, J. G. Savins, E. R. Parish

Many differences can be imagined between gas-oil flow in which the gas is supplied at the face of the core and gas-oil flow in which the flowing gas was originally dissolved in the oil. If capillary pressure characteristics and flow requirements control gas saturation distribution, the gas would be expected to be located at preferred sites within the porous medium as determined by pore sizes. On the other hand, during solution gas drive the gas first appears as bubbles through a nuclea-tion process. Nothing in self-nucleation theory specifies at which sites the first bubbles should be formed. In all probability they will be randomly distributed throughout the porous medium. Furthermore, it is not at all certain that even at low rates of production the gas will redistribute itself after nucleation to the channels normally occupied by gas in simple gas flow. Stewart, et at, have shown that at least for some limestone samples, oil recoveries could not be predicted for all rates of production using any one set of relative gas and oil permeabilities. An important factor in controlling recoveries during solution gas drive was the rate of bubble formation, higher rates giving higher recoveries. Stewart, et al, attributed the increase in recovery to a better distribution of the gas phase in heterogeneous limestone samples than is obtained by simple external gas drive. Differences in recovery from these causes were not reported for sandstone cores. In the experiments to be reported here, oil recovery, pressure and producing GOR history were measured during solution gas drive for a 5-ft sandstone core. The results were compared with predictions from the Muskat method for computing solution gas-drive behavior using external gas-drive relative permeability. The effects of changing the rate of production and oil viscosity were studied. At high laboratory rates of average pressure decline, two observations were made which would not have been predicted by Muskat's depletion theory: (1) oil recovery increased with increasing rate of production for a given viscosity oil, and (2) oil recovery increased with increasing oil viscosity for a given high rate of production. Both of these observations are explained as consequences of diffusion control of gas saturations superimposed on the normal gas-oil flow requirements, Fur- thermore, discontinuous gas phase flow appears to be significant during solution gas drive. The laboratory tests were performed at rates of average pressure decline many times greater than the maximum possible rate of average pressure decline in an actual oil field. It is, therefore, not possible to draw any direct conclusions regarding the effect of rate on recovery for the solution gas-drive mechanism under actual field conditions. However, at the lower laboratory rates, recoveries were nearly independent of rate and could be predicted by the Muskat method, using external gas-drive relative permeability data. These results suggest that at normal oilfield rates the effect of rate on recovery for the solution gas-drive mechanism is negligible. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The core material for the pressure depletion studies was Bandera sandstone from an outcrop in the Mid-Continent. This sandstone was selected because of its low permeability (about 10 md), which would permit the development of substantial pressure gradients in the corn at moderate flow rates. The core was 5-ft long and 2-in. in diameter. Its properties are listed in Table 1. Relative gas-to-oil permeability ratios were measured by an external gas-drive method2. The results are shown for a short 2-in. core and for the 5-ft core in Fig. 8. Oils used in the pressure depletion experiments were kerosene and a highly refined white oil (standard white oil No. 3) with gas-free viscosities of 1.8 and 25 cp, respectively. The gas was a naturally occurring methane from Gough field, Inglewood, Calif. The oil viscosities, gas solubilities and formation volume factors are plotted as functions of pressure at 75°F in Figs. 1 and 2. Methane viscosities and compressibilities were obtained from the literature"'. A core mounting was required which could withstand up to 2,500 psi internal pressure. This was obtained by first encasing the core completely in a plastic resin (Scotch Cast, manufactured by Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co.) The plastic covered core was then inserted into a steel pipe equipped with screw caps so that the plastic coating could be pressured from

By Charles Trotter

An instrument has recently been developed for determining the inclination and azimuthal direction of boreholes. This instrument is known as the Tro-Pari Instrument and is the invention of C. Trotter and G. Pajari of Sudbury, Ontario. Description The instrument is characterized by a unit mounted in gimbals and provided with a clockwork mechanism to clamp a compass to indicate azimuthal direction and simultaneously to clamp the unit in its plumb position to indicate inclination (Fig I). By means of a timing ring suitably calibrated in 5-min divisions, the unit may be set to lock after a lapse of time sufficient to allow the placing of the instrument at the desired point in the drill hole where readings are to be taken. The maximum time Lapse obtainable with the instrument designed for use in EX or AX size holes is I hr 30 min which is considered to be ample time to lower to the greatest depths that may be drilled with this size of equipment. Larger sizes could be developed for larger diameter holes such as BX and NX sizes or the larger oil-well sizes and a correspondingly greater time lapse could be provided for. Up to the present time only the EX-AX size has been built. Operation Assuming a borehole is to be surveyed at 1000-ft depth and assuming it will take 30 min to lower the instrument to this depth, the timing ring is rotated through seven divisions which represent a time lapse of 35 min (5-min leeway) and is then returned to its zero position. This operation imparts energy to a spring which drives the clockwork mechanism. Simultaneously the compass needle is freed to swing to its magnetic north-south position and the encased mechanism is freed to hang plumb within a semicircular portion of the frame which is graduated in degrees after the fashion of a protractor. This semicircular protractor portion has a V-shaped notch at each degree division of its inner periphery. The instrument, now in its free position, is inserted in a bronze container made to suit the size of hole to be surveyed (Fig 2). Soft rubber washers are provided within the container to prevent undue shock. The container is connected to the drill rods with three 5-ft lengths of brass or aluminum alloy rods separating it from the steel rods in order to prevent distortion of the magnetic field. The assembly is then lowered to the desired point where readings are to be taken and is allowed to remain at rest until a period of time has elapsed slightly in excess of the time for which the timing ring was set. In the example cited above, when the 35 min has elapsed the compass needle is locked in its north-south position and the protractor locking pin is extruded and locks in the V notch opposite its plumb position. The device may now be removed from the borehole and it will remain in this locked position in spite of jarring or shak-

Jan 1, 1949

Sec. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise six classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3. Senior Members; 4. Associates; 5. Junior Members; 6. Rocky Mountain Members. All shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that no member of any class whom residence shall be outside of the United States of America, except those residing in Mexico and Canada, shall be entitled to vote. SEC. 2. Members: A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the claw of Member must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years' employment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy, or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. This shall not apply to Rocky Mountain members.

Jan 1, 1934

By Colin G. ink

OUTSTANDI'NG in progress among the less familiar 'metals during 1936 is the electrolytic production of 99.9 per cent manganese meta1 readily and many quantity. Strictly speaking, manganese should not' be classed as 'a rare metal, since there is 800 times as much manganese in the earth's crust as there is zinc or lead. But manganese' as a metal is rare, just as titanium metal is rare though titanium is five times as abundant in the earth's crust as manganese.

Jan 1, 1937

By L. Adler

The author recently proposed a technique for handling the effect of planes of weakness on failure in geologic material.1 The technique employed an "extended" Mohr's rupture envelope, on which was superimposed a generalized three dimensional stress representation. Subsequently, the method was applied to so-called two-dimensional stress states" which were in reality degenerate three-dimensional ones. Since a two-dimensional stress solution usually refers to a plane stress condition, the terminology was confusing. The distinction between a plane stress state and a degenerate three-dimensional one is shown in Fig. 1. The solution of problems involving a generalized three-dimensional stress state is greatly aided by continual reference to the basic principle that no stress components can act on a plane, oriented as is the weakness plane, which lies outside of the weakness plane's rupture enVelope.2 This is shown in Fig. 2; and if it is also remembered that the radii of the Mohr's Circles give the orientation of such a plane, solutions are easier to follow, and perform. Sample Problem 1: Site Location (generalized three-dimensional case).' Given: 1) Both rupture envelope for the solid and plane of weakness. 2) Existing principal stresses and orientations in space (?12, ?13) obtained from a stress analysis of the proposed structure. Find: Permissible orientations of the weakness plane in order to select a suitable site.

Jan 1, 1963

By Bernard MacDonald

The writing of this paper was prompted by the discussion by H. M. Chance of the paper written by Thomas M. Chance,l and by the remarks of the editor in which he stated that while the matter contained in discussion did not refer to the original paper it " was presented as of interest to the operators of cyanide and other lixiviation processes dealing with fluid mixtures of varying specific gravity." For some years past the principle enunciated in the discussion referred to has been known to the writer and demonstrated by him to be an efficient and economical way of separating water or solution from solids in the cyanidation, lixiviation or acid leaching of ore pulps. In utilizing this principle in commercial practice he has invented a method whereby not only the separation of solution from solids may be effected in any given tank, but also the counter migration of the solids and solution may be effected continuously through a series of tanks in which the hydro-metallurgical treatment of ore pulps is being carried on. In effect this method is analogous to the counter-current system, but is different physically in that it is carried on throughout a series of tanks on practically the same level, continuously and automatically, by hydrostatic pressure and gravity-flow, without the aid of intervening pumps or elevators, at the same time that agitation is being carried on in the same tanks. In the Parral system, agitation is effected in tanks by a number of air lifts of comparatively small diameter through which the pulp is continuously transferred from the bottom of the tank and spouted horizontally on top of the charge. The spouting force of the several streams thus discharged maintains a rotary flow in the pulp charge which extends from top to bottom of the tank. This continuous transfer of pulp and the spiral flow from top to bottom of the tank maintains the pulp constituents in uniform proportions and meets the requirements of efficient treatment in a most economical manner. The quantity of compressed air required is very small, as the pulp is not lifted but simply transferred from the bottom to the top of the tank charge under hydrostatic balance. Fig. 1 gives a bird's-eye view of two adjoining tanks in any series equipped with the apparatus for producing the separation of

Jan 1, 1919

By F. R. Brotzen, D. L. Davidson

ALTHOUGH much effort has been devoted to the problem, the nature of plastic flow in bcc metals is still not fully understood. Some of the difficulties encountered stem from the scarcity of information on orientation effects and the uncertainty as to the glide system in these metals. In an attempt to provide some of this information, the present investigation was carried out, using zone-refined molybdenum single crystals deformed in tension and in direct shear. Considerable evidence exists to indicate that the primary slip system for molybdenum is (110) <111>.1,2 Figs. 1 and 2 indicate that this is, indeed, the case for direct shear at room temperature (see Ref. 3 for a description of the shear-testing equipment and procedure). Moreover, from Fig. 2, the shear stress on the (123) is lower than that on the (112). This would be the case if, as has been suggested,4,5 slip on these two planes is in reality com-

Jan 1, 1965

By William S. Springer

A NEW preparation plant has been put in - operation to treat coal from the recently opened Concord mine, located about 15 miles west of Birmingham, Ala., by the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., a U. S. Steel subsidiary. The mine produces metallurgical grade coking coal from the American seam for use as coke in the company&apos;s blast furnaces at the Fairfield and Enseley works. The capacity of the operation is 1000 tons of run-of-mine per hr, approximately half of which is delivered to the by-product coke plant at Fairfield after beneficiation to metallurgical grade. The remaining portion of the mine run is rock and refuse removed during preparation. No boiler coal or other fuels are produced by this mine. Preparation of the coal is done both under- ground and on the surface. The underground primary crushing station removes some tramp iron, and screens and crushes the oversize, most of which is rock, to protect the main slope conveyor. The surface plant consists of a crushing and screening plant, large blending bins, a two- process washing plant, a water clarification and

Jan 1, 1950

By F. C. Smyers, E. W. Merrick

ALTHOUGH the zinc and pyrite concentrates produced at Midvale go to other companies, the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company smelts and refines its own lead. Refining is the first step of the process that is done at some distance from the mining operations, the plant being at East Chicago, Ind., an industrial center about 25 miles southeast of Chicago. For years it has been notable as being the only lead refinery in the country using the Betts electrolytic process. The original buildings, many of which are still in use, were erected in 1906 when the plant was known as the United States Metals Refining Co. In 1920 the parent company sold its copper refinery at Chrome, N. J., and since the copper refinery was also known as the U. S.

Jan 1, 1948

By L. S. Darken, H. A. Wriedt

In a previous paper,1 an experimental study of nitrogen dissolved in a cold-rolled ad heat-treated, low-carbon steel at 300° to 450°C yielded the equilibrium solubility relations and the concentrations of the two types of deject sites involved. In this paper, the probable identities of the defects that absorb nitrogen are restricted from the available evidence to screw dislocatioms for B sites, and to either micro crack surfaces or edge In a previous paper.&apos; we reported an experimental study of the excess nitrogen solubility in a low-carbon steel produced by a combination of plastic deformation and nonrecrystallizing heat treatment. The concentrations of the defect sites that absorb the excess nitrogen were measured in terms of their capacities for nitrogen. Also measured were the equilibria of nitrogen distribution among the sites. Several problems and questions arise from these measurements. We should like a physical identifi- dislocations for A sites. The concentrations of these defects in experimental steel specimens are estimated from the concentrations of defect sites. finally, the influence of chemical composition upon the nitrogen-trapping defects—the relative numbers generated in deformation, the relative numbers surviving as temperature is raised, the apparent numbers observed, and the distribution equilibria-is discussed. cation of the defects involved and of the two kinds of nitrogen-absorbing sites, called A and B types, upon those defects; the concentrations of the defects themselves could then be computed. We should also like to know how exclusively the findings apply to the "X steel" used in the experiments and to what extent they apply to cold-rolled steel given no subsequent treatment. By considering the data already given, together with results from a few specific tests which will be reported as they are invoked, we are able to eliminate some interpretations altogether and to secure an acceptable though limited interpretation from among the remaining possibilities.

Jan 1, 1965

By Vince Poxleitner, John Delaney

Introduction In the mining industry, comminution typically begins in the mine with a blast of explosive to break rock so that it can be handled by the avail- able equipment. Though the breaking of the rock is essential for material handling in the mine and plant, this is not the only reason for ore reduction in the mineral industry. Comminution is primarily required to liberate minerals from ore so that they can be concentrated into valuable products or to prepare minerals, such as talc, for market as mined. The size of the equipment used for comminution ranges from small to massive. Regardless of equipment size, the power required to reduce the rock is a major expense. Years ago, mineral deposits could be mined more selectively and required less grinding to produce saleable products. However, as richer deposits were depleted, it has become necessary to mine low-grade deposits, with the valuables dispersed throughout the rock. Comminution equipment evolved in physical size and capacities to meet the new mine and process requirements. A modern, modestly sized mining operation, with a capacity of 25.000 TPD may use crushers two stories high weighing over a million pounds, SAG mills 36 feet in diameter driven by dual motors putting out 10.000 horse- power, and ball mills over 16 feet in diameter . Because of the increasing size and weight of modern equipment, the builder is faced with the problems of erecting massive foundations and field assembling equipment on these foundations. As equipment costs and plant construction costs increase, builders are finding that owners are asking for more detailed progress and cost data. Comminution construction projects are generally classified as grass roots plants or expansions or modifications to existing plants. It is estimated that 60-702 of the jobs involve existing plants. Today &apos; s costs for construction of small, new comminution plants can reach tens of millions of dollars; larger plants can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. Modifications, on the other hand, usually run from a few thousand to several million dollars. Though many problems are common to the construction of both new plants

Jan 1, 1982

By W. L. McMorris

The Convertol process was first described in Germany by Muschenborn&apos; in 1952. In the U. S. Fraser&apos; reported this new process in 1953, and Brisse and McMorris" presented the results of a Convertol pilot plant at the Alpheus preparation plant in Gary, W. Va., illustrating the mechanics of the process by a series of sketches. The purpose of the present investigation was threefold: 1) to determine the relative effectiveness of various oils and hydrocarbons for recovering coal by the Convertol process, 2) to ascertain the behavior of coal pulps in this process under various operational conditions, and 3) to compare Convertol with flotation in the recovery of fine coals. APPARATUS, PROCEDURE, AND COAL SAMPLES In laboratory work with the Convertol process a Waring Blender equipped with a speed-regulating rheostat was used for wetting, conditioning, inversion, and retention of the coal pulp. A 5-in. International centrifuge was adapted to dewater the agglomerated clean coal product by installation of a 100-mesh screen inside the regular bronze basket of the centrifuge. Except where otherwise stated, the Convertol testing was performed by the following steps: 1) A 450 to 500-cc coal slurry, containing 24 pct by weight of solids, was agitated in the blender for 10 min at 100 rpm to insure complete wetting and mixing. 2) Eight percent by weight of oil was added to the coal slurry in the blender and agitated for 1 min at 11,000 rpm to result in the phase inversion or agglomeration of oil-coated coal particles. 3) The agglomerated coal slurry was poured onto a 100-mesh sieve and wet-screened for about 2 min to remove most of the ash and some of the water. 4) The material remaining on the screen was transferred into the centrifuge for final dewatering. 5) A portion of the clean coal was immediately weighed out for moisture determination, while the

Jan 1, 1960

By M. C. Messner, L. P. Davidson

The Giesche Spas Akcyjna, in Polish Upper Silesia, produces zinc, lead and coal, together with many byproducts emanating from the zinc-lead ores. The development of the concern in the 230 years of its existence has been influenced not only by metallurgical improvements but also to an unusual extent by political and economic factors. The company was founded by George Giesche, who was born in 1653 and died in 1716, and who in 1704 received from Emperor Leopold I the exclusive privilege of mining and selling galmei1 in Silesia. His children, who retained the business, gave the name to the firm—George von Giesches Erben. After 1802 modifications in the Prussian mining and corporation laws limited the rights formerly enjoyed. The family concern became a corporation and expanded its activities, building smelters and opening new mines. The establishment of the present eastern boundary of Germany resulted in the transfer of nationality of a large part of the mines and surface plants to Poland, which, in turn, necessitated the formation of a Polish company, the Giesche Spólka Akcyjna. The first concentrators at the Bleischarley mine were built between 1854 and 1860 and owing to dual ownership were two in number. They were used only for the treatment of galena. In 1873 a concentrator was built for the treatment of sulfide ore preparatory to treatment in the Recke roasting plant, which was the first to have an acid plant for recovery of the sulfur gas. This concentrator was replaccd by a larger one in 1888, when the present orebody was opened up. At the same time, a mill was built for the treatment of the galmei. The concentration of the sulfide ore resulted in a much higher grade of feed for the zinc plants after the first troublesome steps of the roasting process had been worked out. Consequently, the oxide ore in its primitively concentrated state was no longer highly valued as a retort charge. and steps had to be taken to increase its zinc content.

Jan 1, 1935

By S. D. Strauss

The marketing of nonferrous metals and of the ores and concentrates from which these metals are recovered is a fascinating trade, international in character, sensitive to every change in the economic tide, and complex in its organization. Each individual metal has its own marketing mechanism; no two are exactly alike. The differences sometimes are a matter of tradition rather than of necessity, but usually they have developed because of the very nature of the problems of producing or consuming the individual metal. This description, because of limitations of space, can do no more than indicate the major aspects of the trade and touch lightly on the marketing structure of each metal. The dictionary states that a market is a "meeting of people for selling and buying." In the case of nonferrous metals this meeting may occur on a half-dozen different occasions between the time the ore has been first mined and the time the refined metal is available for use by industry; or it may not occur at all until after the metal itself has been rolled, drawn, stamped, cast, or forged into a useful semifabricated shape. To illustrate: A Chilean miner may sell his small ore production to a custom mill, which produces concentrates that are sold to an ore dealer, who finances shipments of the concentrate to a custom smelter, which buys them for conversion into blister, to be subsequently refined into electrolytic copper (sometimes by a refinery having no corporate ties with the custom smelter) and sold. Conversely, aluminum production is mostly by integrated concerns that mine bauxite, convert it to alumina, smelt that to produce aluminum, and then fabricate that into semifinished or even finished products before title to the material changes hands for the first time. Some nonferrous ores are not converted into metal at all but are sold by the miners or dealers directly to the ultimate consumers. A good example would be chrome ores used by the chemical industry. And of course a substantial part of the commerce in nonferrous metals is in scrap, which is the reconversion into useful form of metals that have long since been mined and smelted. Thus, one-third of all the lead used in the United

Jan 1, 1964