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By Paul M. Tyler

The term "milling" as applied to nonmetallic minerals often refers merely to pulverizing without preliminary beneficiation. As applied to dimension stone, it embraces all the gteps involved in shaping and giving the desired finish to blocks. Processes such as sawing, planing, rubbing and polishing seem far removed from milling as the term is used in ore dressing, nevertheless they involve the element of concentration, for only 25 to 50 per cent of the gross quarry output may leave the mill as finished products after imperfect stone has been culled and the rough blocks trimmed. On the other hand, numerous nonmetallic minerals have to be concentrated in much the same manner as low-grade ores. Engineers and machinery manufacturers have begun to recognize more clearly the opportunities awaiting them in the nonmetallic field and have brought with them the methods and equipment developed in metal-mining camps, occasionally with little modification. General Economic Considerations Approximately one-half of the total value of the mineral production of the United States represents mineral fuels, and the other half is about equally divided between metals and nonmetals, the nonmetals recently having become relatively more important. In terms of volume the domestic output of nonmetallic minerals other than fuels is more than 10 times the annual output of metals. Considered on the basis of industrial utility and general commercial and military significance, moreover, the flow of nonmetallic mineral products is quite as needful to our national integrity and well-being as is that of metals, fuels, or other basic materials. Despite their importance individually and as a group, the nonmetallic mineral industries differ so widely in essential characters and economic environment that producers thereof have been slow to develop a community of interest among themselves or with the metal-mining fraternity. A spirit of change is in the air, rule-of-thumb methods soon may be relegated to limbo, and new methods—especially time-tested ideas borrowed from ore-dressing practice—are being introduced. A faithful record of plant practice in certain of these fields, however, must register

Jan 1, 1935

By Gunnar Thaning, Borje Bjorkvall

At LKAB Central Division for Metallurgical Research at Malmberget, Sweden, fired pellets are examined in respect to mechanical and reduction properties. The paper deals with descriptions of the test methods. It also involves the rationale for the choice of these tests. Their correlation to the blast furnace operation will be examined. The mechanical tests used are the ISO-tumbler test and the cold compression strength test. Concerning the metallurgical properties, experiments have shown that some superbasic pellets in particular have different disintegration properties in different temperature ranges. Pellets which have favorable reduction properties when tested under isothermal reduction at high temperature may disintegrate to a large extent under low temperature reduction. This is also valid for some types of acid pellets. Consequently, it was found to be necessary to determine the reduction strength both at high and low temperatures. In the low temperature range, the disintegration is measured by tumbling the pellets in soft reducing conditions at 600°C in a modified Linder test equipment. The high temperature reduction strength is determined under load in the Burghardt-Grebe equipment. However, in order to get more information of the high temperature strength, LKAB intends to introduce a softening test. The tendency of high temperature disintegration will also turn up in the swelling test. The swelling properties are examined according to a procedure developed at LKAB. In this test the pellets are subjected to free swelling without mutual contact. The reducibility of the pellets is recorded in the swelling test.

Jan 1, 1974

By E. A. Gulbransen, J. W. Hickman

INTRODUCTION DURING the past two decades considerable progress has been made in the art of manufacturing heater alloys. The conventional iron-chromium-nickel alloys have been improved by the addition of small quantities of other elements. Up to the present time, to our knowledge, there has not appeared a systematic study of these alloys where the newer tools of investigation have been brought to bear on the problem. It is not yet clear what roles the additional elements play in increasing life time in usage. As a first approximation one might guess that elements such as manganese, silicon, zirconium, calcium and aluminum would aid in the formation of a protective film on the alloy surface, thus retarding the oxidation rate and increasing lifetime. If these additional elements do form protective oxides in the outer surface of the oxide film, it may be possible to identify them by means of reflection electron diffraction. It is also possible that the additional elements may not diffuse to the surface but may remain at the interface between the oxide and the metal. Then, too, the major elements in the alloys undoubtedly form oxides which are stratified on the surface. If the minor elements concentrate in a layer in contact with the substrate where they undergo oxidation and if this oxide film offers resistance to the diffusion of iron, chromium and nickel ions, then the lifetime of the heater element might be expected to increase. It is also possible that preferential reduction in the diffusion rates of the several ions may occur to such a degree that oxides may form in the body of the film and on the outer surface which are different from those that would normally form if the additional elements were not present. The use of transmisson electron diffraction may aid us in interpreting these phenomena. Up to the present time all of the factors which influence the lifetime of a given heater element are not definitely known. Among these are: (I) The rate of oxidation of the alloy. This may be dependent upon the composition and the physical state of the alloy. (2) The stability of the structure of the coating which forms. Transitions from one structure to another or solid phase reactions resulting in a change of composition may occur. The tendency of the film to adhere to the substrate when heated and cooled successively will be important. (3) The evaporation of various constituents from the alloy such as the removal of carbon by oxygen in a decarburization reaction. With these possibilities in view, an electron diffraction study of the oxides occurring on six different nickel-chromium alloys was undertaken with the hope that the results of this study could be correlated with oxidation rate studies as determined by means of the vacuum microbalance method1 and with

Jan 1, 1948

By A. J. Shaler, J. Prieto Isaza, John Wulff

TANTALUM metal has a number of unique properties which give it widespread application in modern technology and in research. In electronic apparatus involving high temperatures in vacuo some of the refractory metals become brittle. Tantalum retains its ductility at elevated temperatures, and this property, together with its low vapor pressure and its ability to absorb gases, make it important in this field. Its chemical inertness in the presence of acids, halogens, and other corrosive media, makes it useful in chemical apparatus and in neuro and orthopedic surgical applications. As an addition to tungsten carbide in steel-cutting grades of cemented-carbide tools, the carbides of tantalum and of its sister element columbium have found considerable use. The present-day method1 of manufacturing tantalum is to sinter a powder compact of the metal in vacuo. Because tantalum- columbium alloys are difficult to work and since tantalum ores almost always contain columbium, the two metals must be separated chemically, the products of the separation being generally in the form of potassium tantalum fluoride and potassium columbium oxyfluoride. These salts are used in fused-salt electrolytic baths from which coarse metallic powder is deposited as a sponge at the cathode. Finer powder can be made from the coarse product or from tantalum scrap by first submitting it to an embrittling heat treatment in hydrogen and then crushing it. The fine hydrogen- containing powder may subsequently be degassed in vacuo at a high temperature. Prompted by the success of others2,3 in the magnesium reduction of titanium and zirconium halides, one of the authors under- took4 an investigation of the thermo- chemistry of the reaction between solid magnesium and gaseous tantalum penta-chloride, a subject which had not previously been studied. He found that the heat of formation of tantalum pentachloride is approximately 364,250 cal per mol at temperatures lower than the melting point of magnesium. A value of 83 units was found for the standard entropy at these temperatures. With these values, it was shown that magnesium and tantalum pentachloride are capable of reacting exothermically at temperatures less than the melting point of magnesium, and that no great violence is to be expected when these substances are heated together. The exothermic nature of the reaction indicated that the process should be efficient and should not require much externally applied energy. Tantalum pentachloride is not commonlv made commercially, and any process using it therefore involves the subsidiary problem of producing and handling this substance. A series of experiments was carried out in which dried chlorine saturated with carbon tetrachloride was passed over heated tantalum, either in the metallic state or combined

Jan 1, 1947

By F. L. Wolf, G. E. Alderson

The reclaiming of nietallics from slag and sweepings is of vital interest to every brass-foundry man, but the first cost and interest on the investment often make it prohibitive for the small foundry to enjoy the benefits of a complete concentrating unit. However, the cost of such an installation and the cost of operation are often exaggerated to such an extent that foundries dispose of their copper-bearing refuse at a great loss. This paper gives the actual costs and the returns obtained in the reclaiming plant used at the Ohio Brass Co. This plant is divided into two sections—the preliminary treatment and concentrating departments. In the former occur the screening, crushing, and hand-picking operations whereby rnost of the non-valuable and heavy metallic constituents are removed. The concentrating equipment consists of an elevator, bins, jigs, ball-mill, arid table. Preliminary Treatment The preliminary treatment varies, depending on whether the material is slag, foundry-floor sweepings, or brass casting-floor sweepings. Material of the first class is produced from the operation of six Steele-Harvey and six Schwartz furnaces; the second class represents sweepings from an average of thirty-five. molding floors per day: and the last is collected around the sprue cutters and knockout bench. Treatment of Slag The slag, analyzing 30 to 40 per cent. copper, is passed over a 3-mesh yard screen (Tyler standard mesh) stretched on an inclined rectangular frame supported by adjustable legs and equipped with a hopper which directs the undersize into a barrow. The fine product, running about 20 per cent. copper and representing 20 to 25 per cent. of the total slag, goes direct to a storage bin for concentrator frrd. The oversize is charged into a No. 2 Hill cinder crusher, which takes 175 to 200 11,. to a charge and crushes two charges per hour through 'a No. 4 riddle. It

Jan 1, 1921

By L. F. Mondolfo, B. E. Sundquist

The undercooling associated with the nucleation of the secondary phase from the liquid by the solid primary phase was studied in sixty binary alloys by means of a hot-stage microscope. It was found that in a system of a and ß, a usually nucleates ß at low undercoolings, but ß does not nucleate a, except possibly at undercoolings approaching homogeneous nucleation. This behavior can be explained in terms of relative interfacial energies and shows that crystallographic disregistry is only a minor factor in heterogeneous nucleation from metallic liquids. PREVIOUS experimental work1-6 on nucleation of solids from liquids has shown that normally nucleation is heterogeneous, and that small solid particles present in the liquid are responsible for the nucleation. These experiments and the theory that has evolved from them have made apparent that there is a "characteristic undercooling" associated with the nucleation of the solid from a given liquid by a given impurity. Little is known, however, about the chemical and structural relationships between the nucleating agent and nucleated solid that control the effectiveness of the nucleating agent in catalyzing the nucleation, as measured by the required undercooling. A review of the literature has yielded seventeen undercoolingsL-6 for the nucleation of solid from liquid metals by "known" nucleating agents. All values come from experiments in which the metal studied was divided into a number of particles (10 to 300 pin diam.) much larger than the number of extraneous impurity particles so as to obtain a large number of particles free of foreign nucleating catalysts. Known nucleating agents are then introduced by coating the droplets with particles or a thin film of the catalyst. Six of the seventeen undercooling values referred to cases where, for various reasons, the identity of the nucleating species was not at all certain. Another six cases involved nucleating agents with a crystal structure that was not known. Four other cases involved undercoolings listed as greater than or equal to undercoolings which were very likely those for homogeneous nucleation. One investigation3 involved adding to droplets powdered oxides, carbides, and so forth that were doubtlessly covered with adsorbed oxide or nitride films. The highly variable nature of these films resulted in highly variable undercooling (as was also found in preliminary work in this investigation). It is apparent that the information on heterogeneous nucleation in liquid metals is too limited to give rise to any definite conclusions on the nature of the catalytic process. With these problems in mind a new method was

Jan 1, 1962

Philip Argall, Denver Col. (communication to the Secretary): Dr. Raymond claims (Trans., xxiii., 560)) that my statement (p. 557) regarding the crystallization of iron "is beyond question incorrect." He says: "It is not even settled that vibration will crystallize iron under any conditions." While admitting that authorities differ on the possibility of cold crystallization of iron, I believe it is a settled and undisputed fact that vibration in the presence of heat will crystallize iron. Bloxam and Huntington say :* " Vibration assists 'in converting fibrous metal (iron) back into a crystalline state when heated, a lower temperature sufficing than in the absence of vibration." Mr. A. F. Hill, summing up a very exhaustive review upon the crystallization of iron and steel, pronounces against crystallization, but only at temperatures below 900' F. Mr. Howe, discussing ,the breakage of a 20-foot porter-bar with a crystalline fracture, suggests that it was attributable to heat, jointly with the jar. We see, then, that vibration of heated iron bars will induce crystallization and consequent change of structure. Referring to my statement, I wish to point out, that I was discussing the vibration of stamps arid should have said, "vibration under all such conditions," etc. That is, vibration attended with sharp blows, such as a stamp-stem is subjected to, will crystallize iron; yet I believe that intense vibration under any condition will

Jan 1, 1895

By Tell Ertl, Ernest E. Burgh

INTRODUCTION THE Bureau of Mines is operating an oil-shale mine 10 miles west of Rifle, Colo., as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels program. The purpose of operating this mine is twofold: First, to supply oil shale to an experimental processing plant; and second, to develop practices and select methods for mining oil shale on a commercial scale at the lowest practicable cost. The second purpose-that of finding out how to mine oil shale most cheaply-entails considerable mining research. Since the drilling of oil shale probably will be one of the major items of the mining cost, factors that influence drilling speeds were investigated. One phase of the drilling program was the development of a successful hard-surfaced rock-drill bit1 that can be used for drilling long holes in oil shale without changing bits. During that phase, drilling speeds were measured and drill cuttings were collected for assay and for screen sizing. When the cuttings from the individual tests were compared, a definite relationship was shown to exist between the drilling speed and the coarseness of the drill cuttings. PROCEDURE Measurement of Drilling Speeds All drilling in the tests was done with a Model UMB-D-99W Gardner-Denver wagon drill. Round-lugged drill steel, 1 ¼ in. in diameter was used in 6, 12, and 18 ft lengths with 2 1/8 -in. Timken H-type bits hard-faced with acetylene tube borium. The tests were made in the lower adit of the Bureau of Mines oil-shale mine; the grade of the oil shale drilled ranged from 18.6 to 42.7 gal per ton. During the experiments air pressure varied between 75 and 90 psi while water pressure remained fairly constant at 75 psi. All holes were drilled almost horizontally. Each drill hole was thoroughly cleaned of cuttings after being collared. The advance of the drill along the carriage was measured and recorded as the drilling speed in inches per minute. Method of Collecting Cuttings To facilitate the collection of cuttings, each drill hole was collared in a smooth, vertical portion of the oil-shale breast (Fig 1). A galvanized-steel sheet was fastened to the breast below the area in which the hole was to be drilled. The cuttings washed out of the drill hole by the drilling water were guided by the steel sheet into a wooden box. The cuttings that remained in the drill hole after the drill was withdrawn were scraped out and placed in the same box as the cuttings washed out of the hole. After the cuttings from a 1-min. drilling interval were collected, they were placed in flat metal pans. The fines were allowed to settle and the clear water was decanted. The cuttings then were dried in the sun.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. T. Eash, N. B. Pilling

As a group, the alloys of iron, nickel and carbon are, in application, one of the most versatile of the ferrous alloy family, and while many investigations have been made of their properties and structure only a few attempts have been made to show the microstructural relation over a wide range of composition. It is necessary at once to be clear about the kind of structural relation with which we are concerned. The equilibrium diagram provides quantitative data regarding structural make-up and its variation with temperature, but equilibrium structures often are far different from the technologically significant ones. This is particularly true of steels and cast irons, and some of the most important components of their structure may have no place in the diagram of equilibrium. The fugitive phases that result from transformation are dealt with in a highly detailed and descriptive manner in the S-curves originated by Bain. The present effort lies in a still different field, which is to portray the relation between sweeping changes in composition and in resultant structure, under controlled but nonequilibrium conditions of thermal treatment. The Guillet1 diagram presented in 1903 was the initial attempt at such a correlation and frequent references to this diagram can be found in the literature even though later work has shown it to require considerable modification. Kase2 published in 1925 a diagram that was based upon observations of furnace-cooled melts. At low carbon contents this diagram agreed fairly well with experience in showing pearlite to exist in alloys containing up to 6 per cent nickel, and completely austenitic steels at 24 to 28 per cent nickel. At high carbon contents, however, irons were indicated as being martensitic at around 2 per cent nickel and austenitic at 12 per cent nickel; these interpretations are open to serious question. Based upon experience with steels and cast iron, Wickenden3 suggested a diagram that agreed fairly well with Kase's in the steel range but which presented a wide departure from it in the higher-carbon, high-nickel regions. In its broad picture, the Wickenden diagram is an approach to "practical" structures. [ ] Reference may be made at this point to the efforts of Marshy to construct an iron-nickel-carbon equilibrium diagram by the coordination of scattered data, which are described at length in the monograph cited. None of these preceding attempts has appeared to meet the need for an exposition of the structural sequence that is encoun-

Jan 1, 1942

By W. A. Ver Wiebe

Under the impetus of new demands caused by the war, the oil and gas industries of Kansas established new records during the year 1942. In all, 1513 test wells were drilled, which is somewhat of a drop from the figure of 2113 for 1941. The 1513 tests yielded 800 new oil wells, 85 new gas wells, and 628 dry holes. Thus there was an increase in two categories, the gas wells and the dry holes. Considering that last year only 592 dry holes were completed out of a much larger total, the figure of 628 dry holes causes some concern among local operators. The increase in unsuccessful tests illustrates once more the fact that each year it is becoming harder to find the remaining oil pools. When the figures are broken down, it appears that western Kansas accounted for 1177 tests, of which 689 were oil wells, 33 gas wells, and 455 dry holes. The total potential daily initial production uncovered by the successful wells amounted to 753,178 bbl. of oil and 619,734,000 cu. it. of gas. The figures for new initial production indicate a substantial drop from last year's figure of 1,691,000 bbl., and the figures on gas are slightly higher. In 1941 the new gas as based on a daily potential was 508,000,-000 cu. ft. In eastern Kansas, 336 wells were drilled. Among these in were oil wells, accounting for a daily initial potential production of 16,199 bbl. The new gas wells numbered 52 and added 253,725,000 cu. ft. per day to the gas potential production of the state. The remaining tests, 173 in number, were dry. It is interesting and perhaps significant that about half (630) of the wells drilled in western Kansas were drilled by the independent operators. Among the large companies, the Cities Service Oil Co. drilled 163 wells; the Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., 52; the Skelly Oil Co., 39; the Continental Oil Co., 48; and the Shell Petroleum Co., 21 wells. In eastern Kansas the independent operators drilled 297 out of the total of 336 wells. Among the major oil companies the Cities Service Oil Co. drilled 19; the Phillips Petroleum Co. 7; and the Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co., 6 wells. The figures based on relative percentages of dry holes to successful oil or gas wells are revealing. In western Kansas almost one half of all wells drilled by the independent operators were dry holes. The major oil companies drilled approximately 547 wells in western Kansas, of which 379 were successful in finding either oil or gas. It thus appears that the major companies fared better than the independents. In eastern Kansas the major companies drilled 39 wells, of which 29 were successful in finding commercial quantities of oil or of gas. No less than 329 wildcat test holes were put down in western Kansas and 105 in eastern Kansas, or 434 in all, during 1942. Considerably more than half of these were drilled by independent operators; 223 in western and 99 in eastern Kansas. An exploratory hole 56 mile or more from production is regarded as a wildcat well in Kansas. On a percentage basis, about 80 per cent of wildcat wells were failures. In western Kansas only 20 per cent found either oil or gas. The failures were about equally distributed among the major

Jan 1, 1943

By W. A. Ver Wiebe

Under the impetus of new demands caused by the war, the oil and gas industries of Kansas established new records during the year 1942. In all, 1513 test wells were drilled, which is somewhat of a drop from the figure of 2113 for 1941. The 1513 tests yielded 800 new oil wells, 85 new gas wells, and 628 dry holes. Thus there was an increase in two categories, the gas wells and the dry holes. Considering that last year only 592 dry holes were completed out of a much larger total, the figure of 628 dry holes causes some concern among local operators. The increase in unsuccessful tests illustrates once more the fact that each year it is becoming harder to find the remaining oil pools. When the figures are broken down, it appears that western Kansas accounted for 1177 tests, of which 689 were oil wells, 33 gas wells, and 455 dry holes. The total potential daily initial production uncovered by the successful wells amounted to 753,178 bbl. of oil and 619,734,000 cu. it. of gas. The figures for new initial production indicate a substantial drop from last year's figure of 1,691,000 bbl., and the figures on gas are slightly higher. In 1941 the new gas as based on a daily potential was 508,000,-000 cu. ft. In eastern Kansas, 336 wells were drilled. Among these in were oil wells, accounting for a daily initial potential production of 16,199 bbl. The new gas wells numbered 52 and added 253,725,000 cu. ft. per day to the gas potential production of the state. The remaining tests, 173 in number, were dry. It is interesting and perhaps significant that about half (630) of the wells drilled in western Kansas were drilled by the independent operators. Among the large companies, the Cities Service Oil Co. drilled 163 wells; the Stanolind Oil and Gas Co., 52; the Skelly Oil Co., 39; the Continental Oil Co., 48; and the Shell Petroleum Co., 21 wells. In eastern Kansas the independent operators drilled 297 out of the total of 336 wells. Among the major oil companies the Cities Service Oil Co. drilled 19; the Phillips Petroleum Co. 7; and the Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co., 6 wells. The figures based on relative percentages of dry holes to successful oil or gas wells are revealing. In western Kansas almost one half of all wells drilled by the independent operators were dry holes. The major oil companies drilled approximately 547 wells in western Kansas, of which 379 were successful in finding either oil or gas. It thus appears that the major companies fared better than the independents. In eastern Kansas the major companies drilled 39 wells, of which 29 were successful in finding commercial quantities of oil or of gas. No less than 329 wildcat test holes were put down in western Kansas and 105 in eastern Kansas, or 434 in all, during 1942. Considerably more than half of these were drilled by independent operators; 223 in western and 99 in eastern Kansas. An exploratory hole 56 mile or more from production is regarded as a wildcat well in Kansas. On a percentage basis, about 80 per cent of wildcat wells were failures. In western Kansas only 20 per cent found either oil or gas. The failures were about equally distributed among the major

Jan 1, 1943

By Joseph C. McCaskill

The writer assumes that this volume is not intended to serve as a source of statistics on international trade and that the reader is not interested in wading through a lot of statistical tables copied from the various reporting agencies. Generalizations therefore are made whenever possible and not always is the source of the information meticulously cited. The United Nations regularly publishes trade data on mineral commodities. E. J. Gealy, and C. L Kimbell, of the U S Bureau of Mines (USBM), work with these data and estimate that they cover approximately 78% of total mineral commodities traded. In addition the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) publishes analyses of certain trade data The most complete report of production and trade in minerals 1s probably the international volume of the U.S. Bureau of Mines Yearbook The latest available edition is for 1968, and some of the data in this edition cover only as late as 1967. Unless otherwise stated, the source of data used in the chapter is this Yearbook Other staff members of the Bureau were most helpful and cooperative They are not to be held responsible for conclusions or points of view to be found in the chapter. THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE The two and a half decades since World War II have witnessed an unprecedented growth international commerce The end of the war found the world economy seriously crippled. Many countries had suffered severe war damage; international trade was disrupted and nations had to resort to exchange controls and bilateral trading arrangements. The postwar recovery, however, was remarkably rapid Within two decades, world Income more than doubled, and world trade which was less than $60 billion in 1948 exceeded $200 billion in 1968, 8 and reached $278 billion in 1970.18 The growing world trade contributed to world prosperity which in turn fostered growth of trade. This dramatic growth of international commerce was made possible by the progressive liberalization of trade and capital movements by the major trading nations of the world which began immediately after the War and has not yet completely lost its steam. The modern-day stimulus of the expanded trade movement was the enactment by the Congress of the United States in 1934, of the

Jan 1, 1976

By A. G. Weber, K. H. Coats, M. H. Terhune, R. L. Nielsen

Two computer-oriented techniques for simulating the three-dimensional flow behavior of two fluid phases in petroleum reservoirs were developed. Under the first technique the flow equations are solved to model three-dimensional flow in a reservoir. The second technique was developed for modeling flow in three-dimensional media that have sufficiently high permeability in the vertical direction so that vertical flow is not seriously restricted. Since this latter technique is a modified two-dimensional meal analysis, suitably structured three-dimensional reservoirs can be simulated at considerably lower computational expenses than is required using the three-dimensional analysis. A quantitative criterion is provided for determining when vertical communication is good enough to permit use of the modified two-dimensional areal analysis. The equations solved by both techniques treat both fluids as compressible, and, for gas-oil applications, provide for the evolution of dissolved gas. Accounted for are the effects of relative permeability, capillary pressure and gravity in addition to reservoir geomety and rock heterogeneity. Calculations are compared with laboratory waterflood data to indicate the validity of the analyses. Other results were calculated with both techniques which show the equivalence of the two solutions for reservoirs satisfying the vertical communication criterion. INTRODUCTION Obtaining the maximum profits from oil and gas reservoirs during all stages of depletion is the fundamental charge to the reservoir engineering profession. In recent years much quantitative assistance in evaluating field development programs has been provided by computerized techniques for predicting reservoir flow behavior. Because of the spatially distributed and dynamic nature of producing operations, automatic optimization procedures, such as those now in use for planning refining operations, are not now available for planning reservoir development. However, present mathematical simulation techniques do furnish powerful means for making case studies to help in planning primary recovery operations and in selecting and timing supplemental recovery operations. A number of methods have been reported which simulate the flow of one, two or three fluid phases within porous media of one or two effective spatial dimensions>-4 However, applying computer analyses to actual reservoirs have been limited mostly to two-dimensional areal or cross-sectional flow studies for two immiscible reservoir fluids. To obtain a three-dimensional picture of reservoir performance using such two-dimensional techniques, it has been necessary to interpret the calculations by combining somehow the results from essentially independent areal and cross-sectional studies. To the authors' knowledge, the only other three-dimensional computational procedure, in addition to those presented here, was developed by Peaceman and Rachford8 to simulate the behavior of a laboratory waterflood. Two computational techniques which may be used to simulate three-dimensional flow of two fluid phases are described in this paper. The first method, called the "three-dimensional analysis", employs a fully three-dimensional mathematical model that treats simultaneously both the areal and cross-sectional aspects of reservoir flow. The second method, called the vertical equilibrium (VE) analysis", is applicable

By G. Krauss, W. Pitsch

The fine structure of the bcc martensite formed in an Fe-33 wt pct ATi single crystal of arrstenite is sho~on by transmission electron microscoPy to consist of combinations of transformation twins, stacking faults, deformation twins, and regular arrays of parallel screw dislocations. These structures constitute evidence for the multiple lattice-invariant deformations which operating during the formation of martensite could produce the real habit-plane scatter measured by a two-surface analysis of the plates formed in the single crystal of this investigation and reported in the literature for other Fe-Ni rnartensites. CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC theories1,2 of martensitic transformation show that the habit plane of martensite in a parent lattice is dependent in part upon an inhomogeneous distortion or lattice-invariant deformation which takes place on a fine scale within a martensite plate during its formation. Several recent theoretical papers3,4 have addressed themselves to an analysis of a wide variety of conceivable lat-tice-invarient deformations and the habit planes which they produce, while experimental investigation have been concerned with either the measurement of habit planes or the description and identification of the martensitic fine structure which reflects the nature of the lattice-invariant deformation operating during transformation. In Fe-Ni alloys with subzero Ms temperatures, the group of alloys with which this paper concerns itself, habit planes have often been found to scatter an amount greater than might be expected from possible experimental errors,5-7 and fine twinning has been identified as a major constituent of the fine structure of martensite.8-11 It has been suggested3,4 that more than one type of invariant shear occurs during martensitic transformation. This possibility has been experimentally supported12,13 by the observation of both dislocation configurations and twinning in a single martensite plate. The purpose of this paper is to report additional evidence for multiple lattice-invariant deformations in martensite and so to account for the real scatter in the habit planes of the martensite plates formed in Fe-Ni alloys. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The Fe-Ni single crystal was produced by pulling a high-purity iron and nickel charge through a single-crystal vacuum furnace in an alumina crucible. The crystal was double-melted to promote homogeneity and to increase its size by further additions on the second pass. In its final form the crystal was 4 cm in diam and 5 cm long. The nickel and carbon contents were analyzed at 32.9 and 0.006 wt pct, respectively. The austenite of this alloy first transformed to martensite by bursts at about -120°C, and, to preserve as much of the austenite as possible, all transformation was performed just below -120°C. Some observations were made on transformed samples which had been heated for 2 min at 340°C. It is assumed that the features of the martensite of these samples, Figs. 1 and 4, are the same as those of the as-quenched martensite. Orientation of the crystal by X-ray diffraction established 10.735 0.609 0.3161? as the axis of the crystal, an orientation that was checked within 2 deg by neutron diffraction. Further checks by electron diffraction of samples cut normal to the axis confirmed this orientation within the larger limits of error inherent in electron diffraction of thin foils. The X-ray orientation was the one used for the two-surface analysis of the martensite habit planes. A two-surface analysis was performed on the quadrant of the single crystal which had been oriented by both X-ray and neutron-diffraction techniques. Photomicrographs at X50 were made on two surfaces along an edge 2 cm long. Fiducial marks and the fact that many of the plates were almost completely surrounded by retained austenite made good matching of individual plates on two surfaces possible. The habit-plane trace on a surface was taken as the best line parallel to the long axis of a plate. A measure of the accuracy afforded by this criterion was provided by a family of very large plates which appeared at intervals along the entire 2 cm length of the edge. The plates all had habit-plane traces within 2 deg of one another. Many of the plates did not show midribs and, therefore, the use of midribs7 to represent habit-plane traces was not feasible in this investigation. The over-all experimental accuracy is estimated to be better than ±2 deg. Samples for transmission examination in a Siemens Elmiskop I at 100 kv were prepared by cutting 2-mm-thick discs from the single crystal, removing about 0.5 mm by chemical polishing,14 trans-

Jan 1, 1965

By Renato G. Bautista, Theodore D. Tiemann

A kinetic study of the hydrogen reduction of taconite from the Wisconsin Gogebic range was made over the temperature range from 500° to 1000°C on eleven size fractions from 4 to 150 mesh. Two stages of reduction were observed, a rapid initial reaction followed by a slower reaction presumably taking place at an internal receding FexO-Fe interface. Calculated mean activation energies for the two reactions were 7800 and 14,600 cal per mole respectively. In recent years there has been an increased interest in the direct reduction of iron oxide ores to metallic iron by means of gaseous reducing agents such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide.1,2 These investigations have been motivated by the desire to develop a process that will by-pass the blast furnace in the production of steel. The majority of these processes have been developed to produce metallic iron by direct reduction from high-grade iron oxide ores.3"5 Very little work has been done on the low-grade siliceous iron oxide ores.6"8 The work reported here is directed principally towards the fundamental aspect of the reduction reactions of siliceous iron oxide ores, since the practical aspects of the gaseous reductant process were discussed previously. The ore used in the investigation was obtained originally from the United States Bureau of Mines10 trench sample of the Yale member of the Wisconsin Gogebic range iron formation. The Yale taconite has an average analysis of 28.2 pct Fe and approximately 50 pct SiO2. Chemically, these nonmagnetic taconites contain on the average about 53 pct silica and 30 pct Fe. An average analysis calculated fron the USBM10 figures for a composite of the five members (Norrie, Plymouth, Pence, Pabst, and ale) of the iron formation is given in Table I. Mineralogically, based on previous X-ray diffraction and other studies, the principal minerals are hematite (Fe2O3), geothite (Fe2O3.H2O), and quartz (SiO2). Minor amounts of iron containing silicates, siderite (FeCO3) and magnetite (FeO. Fe2O3) are present.10,11 The iron minerals and the quartz are finely disseminated requiring extremely fine grinding for liberation. For the experimental work, the ore sample was screened into a number of size fractions, the analyses and densities of which are given in Table II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The reduction experiments were carried out in a 24 in. by 2 in. ID nichrome-wound vertical-tube furnace mounted on a stand. A 1 1/2 in. OD zirconium-oxide combustion tube was used inside the furnace to contain the atmosphere. To the top of this combustion tube was joined a pyrex ground-glass joint to which was attached a glass bulb with a small (1.0 mm) opening at the center, and with two outlets controlled with a stopcock on each side. A pyrex-glass joint with connections to three stopcock joints for introducing hydrogen, nitrogen, and mixtures of hydrogen and nitrogen gas was joined to the tapered bottom of the combustion tube. The sized ore fractions were contained in a 1 in. diameter by 1 1/2 in. 150-mesh nickel screen basket. The basket was suspended in the furnace from a balance by means of a supporting nickel wire which hung freely inside the combustion tube. The furnace temperature was controlled by a Leeds and Northrup Speedomax Type G controller, connected to a chromel-alumel thermocouple placed

Jan 1, 1962

By Frank W. Harris

The strength of hard drawn copper wire is a question of considerable importance to both manufacturer and consumer. Unlike steel and alloy wires, in which strength is governed by both chcniical and physical considerations, t,he high conductivity required for copper wire in the clcc-trical industry generally precludes the possibility of obt,aining tensile strength through the use of alloys. Consequently, this strenglh is largely a rnatter of the ~hysical structure, and all factors known to affect this structure, such as rolling temperature, die contours, lubricants, drawing speeds, etc., arc matters of prime importance. The experiments described here have becn carried out dl~ring the past year at the Baltimore plant of the American Smelting & Refining Co., in connection with a general investigat,ion of sorne of the questions mentioned above, with the object of studying thc physical ~t~ructure of hard drawn copper wire and the influence of ccrtain factors on t,hat st'ruct.ure. The work has been of an exploratory nature, rather than con~prehensivc., but it was thought that the result,s might prove of sr~fficient general interest tjo warrant their publicatlion. The bulk of the hard drawn coppcr wire used in places where strength is an important factor is rnanufacturcd to strict specification, based USU-ally in the United States on thab of t,he Arrlerican Society for Tcst'ing Materials (B-1-23). This specification calls for almost as high a, valuc of t,ensilc strength, consistent with elongation, as it is possible pract'icnlly to obtain, and only physically perfect mlaterial can be relied on to lliect such a specification. Obvious defects, such as laminat'ions protluc:etl through fins in bhe original rods or brittleness duo lo ovt~rdrawing, arc. usually recognized and need only passing refercncc. Laminatlions can be detected by twisting and untwisting the wircx several times; they will show up on the surface in the form of fins. Pig. 1 shows a very bad example of this defect. Thc wire may bc perfectly smooth before twisting hut, when such larrlinations arc3 prcstmt they will readily show up under this treatrncnt. This trouble is caliscd by sirriilar defects in the original rod produced by overfills in rolling. Fig. 2 shows the cross-section of the rod from which thc wire in Fig. 1 was drawn.

By J. L. Thompson

Lime made in a coal-fired rotary kiln has two distinct parts: the interior of the pebble which constitutes about 90% to 95% of the mass, and the surface dust layer which is the remaining 5% to 10%. Uncalcined carbonate and impurities in the product may be present and will not contribute to the hydration reaction. Sulfur, in the form of calcium sulfate, inhibits the hydration reaction out of all proportion to its actual weigh- percent concentration (perhaps more than 100 times). If the stone contains dolomite, this will also inhibit the reaction as its rate of hydration may be nearly three orders of magnitude slower than that of calcium oxide. Early in the hydration reaction dolomite appears practically intert, but given sufficient time, it will hydrate. The heat of reaction is nearly the same as for calcium oxide, but the time necessary for complete hydration may be hours; whereas for calcium oxide it is only fractions of a second. The dust layer on the surface also inhibits hydration as it contains a collection of compounds which have low heats of hydration. This layer can tie up additional calcium and delay or prevent its reaction. In addition to these chemical processes, an important physical characteristic of the lime is its specific surface area. This is effected by the thermodynamics of calcination and the original stone grain chemistry. All of these factors are agglomerated in the gross slaking rate of lime.

Jan 1, 1980

By John C. Smock

The question of the proper valuation of mines of iron ore was suggested to me by the difficulties experienced in getting answers for the United States Census Office, while I was engaged in the work of collecting the statistics of mines in New Jersey and New York. The answers to the questions relating to values of real estate of mine properties varied so greatly that it was necessary to revise them according to some general principles of valuation. Generally the returns of mine proprietors seemed to be too low. There were, however, examples of what would be termed excessive valuation. The subject appeared to be of practical importance, and led to the paper here presented. The following table of selected mine statistics is given, prefacing the discussion of the principles of valuation. It is in part made up of census returns and partly of data obtained directly from mine owners and managers. The mines which were selected for the several groups and mining districts include nearly all of those from which the more full and carefully filled returns were received, and are also representative of their respective districts. Hence the averages obtained from them become good types of these groups or districts. The mines of New Jersey appear in six groups, each containing from three to eleven mines, or, in all, thirty-four mines. The magnetic iron ores of New York are in four well-marked groups, and there are twenty-six mines in them. Then follow the red hematite mines of St. Lawrence and Jefferson counties; and, lastly, the brown hematite groups of Dutchess and Columbia counties, and those of the adjacent parts of Connecticut and Massachusetts. The whole number of mines represented by the table is eighty-eight, of which twenty-eight are hematite mines. The first column gives the value of the real estate; the second that of the plant; the third is the sum of these two, or the capital invested. Then follow the number of men employed, the amount of wages paid during the census year, and the value of materials used in mining and preparing the ores for market." The seventh column gives the total expendi-

Jan 1, 1882

By L. S. Darken, H. A. Wriedt

THE constitution diagram of the iron-copper system derived by Daniloff' exhibits, at the iron-rich end, phase fields similar to those of the iron-carbon diagram. At 1484° 1094°, and 850°C there are, respectively, a 6-y-L peritectic, a y-E-Lperitectic, and a a-y-E eutectoid. The phase designated E is copper-rich, containing 4 pct Fe or less according to the temperature. The composition of copper-saturated ferrite (a-solid solution) has been determined previously only twice as a function of temperature. By electrical conductivity measurements, Buchholtz and Köster2 found 3.4 pct Cu in ferrite at a eutectoid temperature of 810°C. They represented the composition of saturated ferrite by the equation, log (%Cu) = 4.32-4125 (1/T) Gregg and Daniloff3 reported that Köster later modified his opinion, raising the indicated eutectoid temperature to 833 °C and the copper content of eutectoid ferrite to 3.7 pct. The literature contains several indications4-7 that the work of Köster and his co-workers is not reliable. Norton,8 using an X-ray method, found that 1.4 pct Cu dissolved in ferrite at the approximate eutectoid temperature of 850°C and that the solubility decreased to about 0.3 pct at 700°C. Below 700°C his experimental data show almost no change in solubility. These findings, although inconsistent with the work of Ruer and Goerens4 and of Smith and Palmer,7 have been used generally since their publication. In investigations involving the observation of arrests in temperature during continuous heating or cooling the precise location of the eutectoid temperature has been obscured by a large hysteresis. The more reliable work 579 where the results are not effected by this hysteresis indicates a eutectoid temperature between 840° and 850°C. The foregoing discrepancies, along with a few observations in this Laboratory relating to the precipitation of copper from ferrite, prompted us to rein-vestigate the lower temperature portion of the Fe-Cu system. In this investigation the solubility of copper in ferrite was obtained by the chemical analysis of high-purity iron equilibrated with copper-silver alloys. This method eliminated the necessity for retaining by a quench the physical state of the specimen existing at the equilibration temperature. EXPERIMENTAL The reaction of the iron with the copper alloy was

Jan 1, 1961

By James Herbert Bartlett

The MANUFACTURE of Iron in the PROVINCE of Quebec. The St. Maurice Forges.—The deposits of iron-ore in the St. Maurice district, in the rear of Three Rivers, were probably known to the Indians and .Jesuits, but it is not till 1667 that any discovery is reported. The affairs of the colony were then in the control of the " West India Company," who amongst other monopolies had a right to all mines and minerals." Specimens of the iron-ore were examined in Quebec. in 1668 by the Sieur la Potardière, who reported unfavorably on them. In 1671, Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, was appointed governor of La Nouvelle France ; and in the original manuscripts relating to his administration some allusion is occasionally found to the St. Maurice iron mines.? In a letter to the Imperial Government, dated 2d November, 1672, he says: "The iron mine of which I have already spoken is of great consequence. I have visited it myself, in order that I may be enabled to give a more accurate account of its nature. I am gratified to learn that another mine has been discovered in Champlain, which is much richer than the Cap de la Madelaine mine, and the ore is in greater

Jan 1, 1886