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By S. Ramachandran, R. A. Walsh, J. C. Fulton

A method has been developed for calculating the oxygen content of commercially melted stainless steels. Application of thermodynamics to the de-oxidation reaction in straight chromium and Cr-Ni stainless steels has resulted in a set of equations DURING the past 30 years, many rewarding developments have resulted from the application of physical chemistry to steelmaking. A need still ex- which permits the calculation of oxygen contents. The model was programmed for computer calc~ilations. The validity of the method was demonstrated on routine oxygen samples from numerous commercially melted heats of stainless steel. ists for further progress in the use of thermodynamics to meet the more stringent requirements for cleaner steel. Current electric furnace practices have been developed around minimizing residual-oxygen content, one of the most important factors controlling the inclusion content of stainless steels. The residual oxygen is controlled by the use of deoxidizers during the finishing period and a number of empirical rules have been evolved. Although this feature of electric furnace practice has long been in use, only in recent years has funda-

Jan 1, 1963

By Hans W. Brodbeck

The main problem in tunneling without the use of explosives lies in the development of tools capable of continuous mechanical destruction of rock, resulting in a fragmentation which lends itself to a smooth, uninterrupted transportation of the broken rock away from the tunnel face. While all moles of U.S. design mainly achieve this by crushing the rock by means of "disk cutters" or "roller bits," a boring system based on the principle of cutting the rock came into being in Europe, whereby the rock is worked in a manner very similar to the milling of metals. For tunneling purposes, this principle was first developed by the late Austrian engineer Wohlmeyer. Between late 1962 and the spring of 1965, the first experimental machine was tested in a German coal mine, working in coal and shale over a distance of some 3000 ft, divided over two runs separated by a period of time to allow for equipment modifications. In 1964, a collaboration was started between Wohlmeyer and the Habegger engineering firm of Thun in Switzerland. The normal Habegger range of equipment consists of aerial ropeways, ski lifts, and certain tool machines, to which in later years have been added monorail passenger-transport systems. One of these was installed as the main mode of transport at the 1967 World Fair in Montreal. After taking over the Wohlmeyer patents, Habegger further developed the original cutting principle, aiming at more robust machines in order to be able to tackle harder rock. A first machine was built and tested at a site near Thun in sandstone averaging 17,000 psi compressive strength and limestone of 25,000 psi. In May 1966 this machine was delivered to Japan for the boring of a pilot tunnel for the Honshu-Hokkaido railway connection under the sea. A second machine, incorporating many improvements based on experience gained with this first mole, was built during 1966 and tested in the same limestone as mentioned previously (25,000 psi), before being installed to bore the head race tunnel of the Julia hydroelectric power scheme near St. Moritz, Switzerland, in the early summer of 1967 (Fig. 1 ) .

Jan 1, 1970

By Arnold E. Lamm

The author addressed a keynote session for all divisions at last October's SME Fall Meeting in Phoenix, Ariz. Discussing the competition from gas, oil, hydroelectric and atomic energy, he said that the market can only be wrested from them "by endeavoring to lower costs far beyond anything we thought possible a few years ago." He saw the rate of return for the industry as "grossly inadequate." Looking ahead, Mr. Lamm saw only a few extremely large generating plants being built. "Purchase of coal for such plants," he said, "will probably be confined to a single source on long-term contracts. Only those coal companies who are able to locate huge reserves, close to adequate cooling water, capable of being mined and transported at the lowest cost in relation to quality, will be able to compete. . . While the market for coal will be very large in terms of tons, it will be most selective and confined to a few transactions of very great magnitude. "Coal offers a proven and tried method of producing energy. The available strippable reserves of Western coal and mineable underground reserves offer the cheapest source of energy available. History will attest that coal has been a steady and stable source of energy. Up until recently, the energy market of the West has had to depend on natural gas which product has had a long and steady price escalation. Statistics show that, where coal is available, the price of gas is quite stable, but where gas is the only available fuel, it has traditionally followed a steady and upward price trend.

Jan 11, 1965

By Peter M. Fozzard

The San Bartolomt silver deposit was discovered by a United Nations team of geologists working with a counter- part team of staff of the Ecuadorian Government's General Directorate of Geology and Mines (DGGM). The Phase I project over five areas of operation during which this discovery was made was financed through a United Nations Development Program contribution of $860,000 and an Ecuadorian Government participation of about $680,000 equivalent. Existence of mineralization at San Bartolomé was first recognized in 1966 when a reconnaissance geochemical stream-sediment program was carried out over a 10 500 km2 (4,054 sq mile) area centered around the city of Cuenca in southern Ecuador. Over the course of this project more than 10,000 samples of stream-sediment, soil, and rock materials were collected. Average costs per sample were $10.00, as follows: collection, $5; sample preparation, $1.60; assay work, $3.40. Initially in the program (1965-1966) sediments were collected along all motorable roads and tracks. Routine analyses, originally by colorimetry and later by AAS, were for Cu, Pb, Zn and occasionally As, Ni, and Co. Discovery geochemical samples from the San Bartolomé drainage area were among the first to be taken in 1965. As luck would have it, the road along which this traverse was taken passes only some 100 m (328 ft) downstream from the mineralized suboutcrop. The relevant two streams sampled are of inconsequential size, some 1 m (3.3 ft) in width, with a limited flow volume throughout the year. Original anomalies were recognized through cold-extractable Cu/Zn analyses. The pH of all river waters was also recorded at sample sites. Resampling the discovery sediments when AAS became available showed total extractable values of between 150 ppm-300 ppm Zn, 550 ppm Pb, and 10 ppm Ag. In 1967 the first followup was by rough-and-ready means. Dithizone field-kits (THM) were used to rapidly test soils from the surrounding area. The area has no outcrop. This work allowed the definition of an area of interest of some 2 km (1.2 miles) x 500 m (1640 ft). Six approximately 1 km (0.6 mile) to 1.5 km (0.9 miles) lines spaced at approximate 250 m (820 ft) intervals were established and used for IP surveys and soil sampling at 50 m (164 ft) intervals. Where one of the lines crossed the westernmost geochemical discovery creek a first-priority geophysical anomaly coincided with a major Zn/Pb (and later Ag) soil anomaly. A pit was sunk and encountered mineralized vein material at a depth of 1.5 m (5 ft). This lucky glory hole confirmed the geochemical discovery and prompted systematic followup. Immediately, costeaning of the west bank of the discovery creek, the Quebrada Ocashuaico, was carried out and exposed weathered and leached mineralization. Nearly 100 mineralized veinlets ranging in thickness from 0.5 cm (0.2 in.) to 8 cm (3 in.) were exposed across the 180 m (59 1 ft) costean. Sixty mineralized veinlets were determined over a 90 m (295 ft) wide zone. Sampling delineated minable widths averaging between 0.16 and 0.31 kg/t (5 and 10 oz per st) Ag with associated copper (very sporadic) lead and zinc. Over the period 1968- 1972 a considerable amount of detailed work was completed: detailed IP, EM Turam, magnetic and mise-a-la-masse geophysics, very detailed soil- sampling, trenching, drilling and glory-hole drifting, and cross-cutting. Numerous problems were encountered: the area was found to be a most difficult geoelectrical target; zero outcrop; pyrite (nonargentiferous zones) associated with faulting; mineralized groundwater; extensive clay development; loss of diamond drill-core, and no two-dimensional surface information. As the program developed the complexity of the structure was slowly unravelled, using a degree of good guesswork. Apart from photogeological and ground geological mapping at various scales, the following

Jan 1, 1985

[A Editor's Note: Annual Reviews of various subjects and areas are found in February issues of Mining and Metallurgy and Mining Engineering. These Annual Reviews are not listed per se in the Index. Abating Stream Pollution in Anthracite Coal Fields. ME Mar 50 Abbadia San Salvatore mine, Italy. T178, 297 Abbott, C.E.: Limestone Mine in the Birmingham District. With Discussion. T129, 62 ABC Typifies Trend to Mechanized Mining and Coal Preparation. ME Dec 50 Abel, J.F.: Statistical Analysis of Tunnel Supporting Loads. T235, 288 Sulzbach, J. F., and Walker, D.K.: Ice Tunneling in Greenland. ME Jun 59 Aberfoyle tin mines, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, stannite, as intergrowths. T214, 1147 Abnormal Behavior of Some Ore Constituents and Their Effect on Blast Furnace Operation, The. T241, 1 Abrams, C.J.: Industry's Responsibility in Postwar Economy. M&M Mar 45 and Haley, D.F.: History of Crushing and Milling at Climax. M&M Jun 46]

Jan 1, 1972

By R. I. Jaffee, F. C. Holden, H. R. Ogden

Alpha solutes increase the strengths of Ti-Mn alloys through solid-solution strengthening. The substitutional a addition, aluminum, decreases, and the interstitial solutes, carbon and nitrogen, increase the rate of nucleation and growth of a from ß. The best combinations of properties of a-ß alloys are obtained when there is a sufficient quantity of a phase in the structure to dissolve the a solutes. OF the many different titanium-base alloy systems, the predominant alloy type is the a-ß alloy. The properties of the a-ß alloys are dependent on solid-solution strengthening and heat-treatment effects involving the a-ß ratio and transformation reactions. Another variable which influences the mechanical properties of a-ß alloys is the a-stabilizer content of the alloy. An a solute may be present as an intentional addition, such as aluminum, or as an impurity element, such as carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen. It is known that these a stabilizers, when added to titanium, form single-phase alloys which are not heat treatable but which obtain their strength from solid-solution strengthening. Thus, it would be expected that a additions to a-ß alloys would increase the strength of the alloys by solid-solution strengthening of the a phase. In addition, they would affect the transformation kinetics of the ß-to-a reactions and other processes based on the instability of the ß phase. The effects of heat treatment and structure on the mechanical properties of Ti-Mn alloys have been shown in a previous paper.6 This system offers a good base to demonstrate the effects of typical a solutes on the properties of a-ß alloys. The three a solutes described in this work are aluminum, representative of a substitutional a solute, nitrogen, representative of an interstitial a solute, and carbon, representative of an interstitial compound-forming element. The effects of heat treatment and microstructure on the properties of a alloys containing these three elements are described in concurrent publications. Some of these data are used for base-line points in several of the curves used for illustration herein. Experimental Procedures Iodide titanium was used as the base for all of the alloys studied in this work. The alloys were prepared as ½ lb ingots by double arc melting in an argon atmosphere. The ingots were forged to ¾ in. rounds, vacuum annealed for 6 hr at 900°C at a pressure of 10 ' to 10-5 mm of Hg to remove hydrogen, and hot swaged to 1/4 in. diam rod. After me- chanical descaling, test specimens were prepared for heat treatment. The alloys used in this study together with the fabrication temperatures are given in Table I. Heat treatments were done in argon. For the most part, the specimens were sealed in Vyeor capsules under a partial pressure of argon. Quenching was accomplished by breaking the capsule under water. Other cooling methods used included oil quench, argon cool (simulated air cool in an argon atmosphere), and furnace cool. The times for the various heat-treating temperatures are given in Table 11. The tests performed on the alloys consisted of tensile tests on ? in. diam specimens, hardness tests, and microimpact tests. Specimen sizes have been adequately described in a previous publication.' The micrographs presented in this paper were taken from specimens cut from the shoulders of broken tensile specimens. Final polishing was done with Linde B on a slow-speed wheel, and the specimens were etched with a 1½ HF — 3½ HNO, solution. Ti-N-Mn Alloys The transformation diagram and microstructures of the Ti-0.1 pct N-Mn alloys used in this investigation are given in Fig. 1. The effect of small nitrogen additions on the binary Ti-Mn diagram is to raise the ß-transus temperature with little effect on the a solubility of manganese. Also, as has been noted previously,' high manganese-content alloys containing nitrogen, when quenched from temperatures high in the ß field, contain a subgrain boundary phase which appears to be nitrogen-rich a. Marten-site is formed when alloys containing less than about

Jan 1, 1956

By H. Sigurdson, C. H. Moore

Extensive studies have been carried out on electric furnace and blast furnace slags obtained in the winning of iron from its ores. These slags normally consist of elements of the gangue minerals present in the ores, as well as the added flux materials. In consequence, melts of CaO, MgO, Al2O3 and SiO2 can be considered as representing typical slag compositions. When a slag of this composition cools, it usually crystallizes according to predictions possible from an equilibrium diagram of these constituents, providing the melt is not undercooled to form glass. The melt is either viscous or fluid, depending upon the ratio of binary cations to silica, and crystallizes easily or forms a glass for the same reasons. If the melt is not overheated so that carbides of the metal components of the slag are formed and if the composition of the slag is so adjusted that it has a high fluidity, liquid equilibrium is attained and the slag can be held in a liquid state for extended periods of time. Upon tapping, the slag crystallizes into minerals, the type and proportion of which are determined by the melt composition. Since equilibrium is attained, the holding period is not critical. In melts containing a large increment of titanium, however, the normal slag procedures are not applicable. Titanium, as one of the atomic transition elements, is, at elevated temperatures, capable of being reduced to form metalloid compounds much more readily than the refractory oxides present in normal slags. In consequence, an oxide melt containing titanium never reaches equilibrium in a reducing environment, but continues to shift its composition until cooled. If melts of this nature are cooled and samples submitted to metal-lographic and X ray analysis the course of reaction and crystallization in this type of slag can be determined. Preparation of Slag The slags investigated fell into the system CaO-MgO-TiO2-Al2O3-SiO2 and were produced from ilmenite ores reduced by carbon in an electric furnace. Since the equilibrium series1 and the laboratory smelting of ilmenite2 are described in two of the accompanying papers, detailed description of the smelting procedure is not required here. However, certain essentials must be mentioned. Two types of melts were used to produce slags studied in this investigation. The first series of smelts made to determine proper flux addition were produced in a 4 lb Ajax induction furnace. The charge, consisting of ore with the proper flux addition, was heated in a graphite crucible until fluid, held fluid for a sufficient time period to obtain 1-5 pct FeO content, and poured. Because of the small size of the charge only the final sample of these melts could be examined. In the melts made in the 50 lb arc furnace, however, grab samples taken at 10 min. intervals between time of initial melting and final pouring were available for examination. These samples allowed a much clearer picture of the course of reaction and crystallization. amounts of ferrous oxide and reduced titanium compounds is opaque to transmitted light. Therefore, all petro-graphic studies had to be made on polished slag sections. A representative sample of slag was cut or broken, mounted in a thermosetting plastic, ground flat using 400 grit silicon carbide, the coarse scratches removed with 600 grit silicon carbide and polished on billiard cloth using levigated alumina. Rouge was avoided because of the entrainment of the red particles in pores in the slag, causing a possible confusion with some of the mineral phases. In order to prevent sample projection above the plastic surface red bakelite was used to hold the sample, and backed up with clear lucite. In this manner sample labels could be permanently retained in the mounting. The polished samples were examined on a Bausch and Lomb metallograph at magnifications of 250 X, 500 X, 1000 X and 1800 X. The instrument was equipped for examination of specimens under bright field illumination and with crossed nicols. A magenta tint plate to aid in color tone differentiation was also used. Petrology of Slags In order to determine the composition and mineral relatinos of a previously unreported system petrologically, it is essential that the starting composition, reaction temperature and final composition be known. The chemical composition of the ilmenite ore used in these smelts is given in Table 1, and the complete analysis of a typical high titanium, low iron slag is given in Table 2. In the winning of TiO2 from ilmenite by a smelting process it is necessary to produce a slag which will melt at an economically feasible temperature, remain molten as the iron is removed by reduction, be fluid enough to be readily removed from the furnace, contain a high percentage of TiO2 and a low percentage of reduced titanium com-

Jan 1, 1950

By A. J. May

THE Star shaft is near the north boundary of the group of mining claims belonging to the Ground Hog Unit of the American Smelting and Refining Co., near Vanadium, N. Mex. The shaft bins and surface plant are served by a siding from the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad, and this factor of railroad transportation influenced the choice of site. This paper describes the shaft sinking only, and does not cover the surface plant or other parts of the mine or its equipment. A. J. MAY is Engineer in Charge of Shaft Sinking, Ground Hog Unit, American Smeling and Refining Co, Vanadium, New Mexico. El Paso Meeting, October 1948. TP 2737 A. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received Nov. 29, 1948; revision received June 22, 1949. Experience with this shaft seems of interest because of the mechanical mucking, good rate of progress, and the costs obtained at the present level of labor and material costs. The shaft has four compartments, as shown in fig. 1. Equipment: Riddell Mucker: The mucking was done by a clamshell bucket and a Riddell mucker, which, as in other shafts sunk with this machine, consisted of a carriage mounted on axles with double flanged wheels that traveled back and forth on a swinging track, parallel to the long axis of the shaft (fig. 2 to 6). Three air motors were mounted on the carriage; one hoisted the clam, one operated the bucket opening and closing device, and the third moved the carriage along the track. The carriage was designed with guide shoes and could be hoisted to the surface in either skip compartment without trouble (fig. 4). During blasting operations the clam was tied on the rails and the carriage was hoisted up a few sets to protect it from flying rock. No attempt was made to hoist the carriage and clam together lest the clam catch in the timbers. The track on which the carriage operated was built of extra heavy 6 in. pipe with 1x2 in. strap welded on top for rails. A Yzx4 in. angle was welded on the bottom of the 6 in. pipe with a 1 in. round rod welded in the angle for a filler and additional strength. The end or cross pieces of the track which kept the track to gauge, were also made of reinforced, heavy 6 in. pipe and were bolted to the long members on which the carriage traveled (fig. 2 and 3). This section of track was used, instead of heavy railroad rails, for two reasons: (1) this section would bend before it snapped and was much safer for the men in the bottom; and (2) it was a better blasting shield, and protected the timbers better, in fact, only five wall plates were broken by blasting in 1926 ft of shaft, although 150 to 225 lb of 40 pct powder was loaded per round, depending on the ground conditions. The swinging track was supported by four % in. hoisting cables anchored to the end plates. There were also four safety cables fastened two to three sets above the carriage, which would catch the carriage if one of the supporting cables should fail for any reason (fig. 7). Clamshell Buckets: Two clams were used, each of % yard capacity, both manufactured by Blaw-Knox, Nos. 662 and 663. The No. 663 clam was 4 in. wider and 5 in. shorter than the No. 662, but seemed to dig and load more satisfactorily. It was easier to hoist and lower when it came up for repair. It did not turn over as easily, had less spill

Jan 1, 1951

By A. J. May

THE Star shaft is near the north boundary of the group of mining claims belonging to the Ground Hog Unit of the American Smelting and Refining Co., near Vanadium, N. Mex. The shaft bins and surface plant are served by a siding from the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad, and this factor of railroad transportation influenced the choice of site. This paper describes the shaft sinking only, and does not cover the surface plant or other parts of the mine or its equipment. A. J. MAY is Engineer in Charge of Shaft Sinking, Ground Hog Unit, American Smeling and Refining Co, Vanadium, New Mexico. El Paso Meeting, October 1948. TP 2737 A. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received Nov. 29, 1948; revision received June 22, 1949. Experience with this shaft seems of interest because of the mechanical mucking, good rate of progress, and the costs obtained at the present level of labor and material costs. The shaft has four compartments, as shown in fig. 1. Equipment: Riddell Mucker: The mucking was done by a clamshell bucket and a Riddell mucker, which, as in other shafts sunk with this machine, consisted of a carriage mounted on axles with double flanged wheels that traveled back and forth on a swinging track, parallel to the long axis of the shaft (fig. 2 to 6). Three air motors were mounted on the carriage; one hoisted the clam, one operated the bucket opening and closing device, and the third moved the carriage along the track. The carriage was designed with guide shoes and could be hoisted to the surface in either skip compartment without trouble (fig. 4). During blasting operations the clam was tied on the rails and the carriage was hoisted up a few sets to protect it from flying rock. No attempt was made to hoist the carriage and clam together lest the clam catch in the timbers. The track on which the carriage operated was built of extra heavy 6 in. pipe with 1x2 in. strap welded on top for rails. A Yzx4 in. angle was welded on the bottom of the 6 in. pipe with a 1 in. round rod welded in the angle for a filler and additional strength. The end or cross pieces of the track which kept the track to gauge, were also made of reinforced, heavy 6 in. pipe and were bolted to the long members on which the carriage traveled (fig. 2 and 3). This section of track was used, instead of heavy railroad rails, for two reasons: (1) this section would bend before it snapped and was much safer for the men in the bottom; and (2) it was a better blasting shield, and protected the timbers better, in fact, only five wall plates were broken by blasting in 1926 ft of shaft, although 150 to 225 lb of 40 pct powder was loaded per round, depending on the ground conditions. The swinging track was supported by four % in. hoisting cables anchored to the end plates. There were also four safety cables fastened two to three sets above the carriage, which would catch the carriage if one of the supporting cables should fail for any reason (fig. 7). Clamshell Buckets: Two clams were used, each of % yard capacity, both manufactured by Blaw-Knox, Nos. 662 and 663. The No. 663 clam was 4 in. wider and 5 in. shorter than the No. 662, but seemed to dig and load more satisfactorily. It was easier to hoist and lower when it came up for repair. It did not turn over as easily, had less spill

Jan 1, 1951

By M. E. Wadsworth, C. H. Pitt

Nickel corrosion in sulfuric acid solutions at elevated temperatures and oxygen wer-pressures was imestigated. Weight loss was 1inear with time and varied directly with oxygen concentration. Independent variation of the possible active species in solution indicated that the undissociated sulfuric acid molecule plays an important part in the corrosion mechanism. The rate determining step was considered to be the adsorption of oxygen on a site containing adsorbed H2SO4. THE tendency for a metal to go into solution depends on a number of factors some of which are: 1) the position of the metal in the electrochemical series; 2) the type and concentration of corroding species in solution; 3) the concentration of oxygen in solution; 4) the type of film formed at the liquid-metal interface; and 5) the physical state of the metal. The corrosion of a metal in an aqueous solution may be considered to be a heterogeneous reaction that occurs at the liquid-metal interface. The reaction is generally considered to occur as a result of electrochemical potential differences within the system. Little work has been published in the literature concerning the corrosion of pure nickel. A great deal has been publistled dealing with the experimental and theoretical aspects of the over-all corrosion process. Evans,1 Uhlig,' and recently Todt 3 and Tomashoff,4 have published books which review the results of experiments which have been conducted on corrosion, and have developed some of the basic ideas of the more widely accepted theories of corrosion. Friend5 states that. nickel does not readily discharge hydrogen from any of the common nonoxidiz-ing acids and that a supply of some oxidizing agent is necessary for appreciable rates of corrosion. He further notes that at temperatures between atmospheric and close to boiling, corrosion rates tend to vary with concentration, temperature, and aeration in acid concentrations up to 25 pct. Whitman and Russel6 studied the effect of dissolved oxygen on a number of metals in acid solutions and found that oxygen accelerates the rate of corrosion of nickel in sulfuric acid. Flowers and Kelley7 in studying the action of dissolved CO, on electroplated nickel postulated that nickel dissolves as NiHCO3 in the presence of CO, and air. It was found that oxygen was necessary for corrosion to take place and that the rate increased with increasing amounts of oxygen in solution. Flowers and Kelley attributed the oxygen effect to cathodic depolarization. MacGillavry, Rosenbaum, and wensson' determined metal solution potentials of nickel in various electrolytes. They found that nickel has no tendency to corrode in alkaline solutions in the presence or absence of air. In acid solutions in the presence of air, metal solution potential increases in the order of 1/2 v were observed. This increase was attributed to probable chemisorption of oxygen on the nickel surface and the corrosion mechanism suggested was the interaction of H+ ions with the nickel oxide formed at the surface. Delahay9 observed the reduction of oxygen on various metals. A polarograph was used to measure the course of the reaction. With some metals hydrogen peroxide was produced as an intermediate compound. However, nickel was not considered to be a hdrogen peroxide producer. Van Rysselberghe 10,11 and associates attributed the accelerating effect of carbon dioxide on the corrosion process to the presence of percarbonic acid produced in solution reacting with the hydrogen peroxide. The percarbonic acid can be reduced at less negative potentials than hydrogen peroxide and as a result accelerates the reaction. EXPERIMENTAL Since a complete description of the apparatus used can be obtained elsewhere,12'13 no attempt will be made here to describe the equipment other than to note that it consisted essentially of an autoclave unit from which samples could be withdrawn periodically without disturbing the interior state of the autoclave. A titanium autoclave liner was used to protect the autoclave from the solution.

Jan 1, 1961

By Robert Glass Cleland

IN SPITE of its widely ramified interests in manufacturing, mines, lumber, railroads, and real estate, Phelps, Dodge & Co. remained primarily interested in exporting and importing, in buying and selling, and William E. Dodge, the directing-partner, consistently styled himself a merchant. After 1849 the profits of the company mounted steadily for seven years until they approached the half-million mark, but in 1857 another severe panic ended the long period of national prosperity that had begun some fifteen years before. Extravagance, indebtedness, and inflation again took their costly toll; or, as the New York Herald of June 27,1857, declared: Governmental spoliations, public defaulters, paper bubbles of all descriptions, a general scramble for western lands and town and city sites, millions of dollars, made or borrowed, expended in fine houses and gaudy furniture; hundreds of thousands in the silly rivalries of fashionable parvenues, in silks, laces, diamonds and every variety of costly frippery are.only a few among the many crying evils of the day. The worst of all these evils is the moral pestilence of luxurious exemption from honest labor, which is infecting all classes of society. The country merchant is becoming a city stock-

Jan 1, 1952

By R. A. Burmeister, P. E. Greene

Two methods for the synthesis and growth of single crystals of B6 P are described: a solution-growth process employing nickel as the solvent, and a vapor-growth process employing BBr3 and pH3 as the reac-tants. Relevant portions of the Ni-B-P phase diagram have been examined and liquidus data are presented for an isobaric section at an equivalent P2 pressure of 3.8 Torr, and an isothertnal section at 1300°C. Solution-growth techniques are described and the purity and crystalline perfection of the resulting material is discussed. Epitaxial growth of BeP on &P substrates has been obtained using the vapor-phase system. Evidence is presented which supports the assignment of the stoichioknetry B6P to boron sub-plwsphide. THE B-P system differs from other III-V systems in that it contains two distinct compounds. The existence of the monophosphide (BP) has been known for some time,' whereas the subphosphide (B6P) was reported only recently.' Both of these compounds are large bandgap semiconductors (Eg = 2.0 ev for BP~ and 3.3 ev for B6P4), and are therefore of interest for optoelectronic applications. The crystal structure of B6P is quite different from those of most semiconductors, being derived from that of a-rhombohedral boron by the incorporation of the two phosphorus atoms in the intericosahedral sites of the a-boron unit cell?76 B6P also exhibits a number of unusual characteristics, including a high degree of chemical inertness, hardness, and high-temperature stability. No information concerning other physical properties is available in the literature. The present study is part of a broader investigation of the preparation and properties of B6P. This paper considers methods of growing single crystals of B6P of suitable size and quality for physical-property measurements. A detailed discussion of the electrical and optical properties of B6P will be given elsewhere.' GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The method first used to synthesize B6P was the disproportionation of BP' according to the reaction The equilibrium P2 pressures corresponding to this reaction were also determined .'" It is therefore possible, in principle, to apply several of the reactions reported for the synthesis of BP to the synthesis of B6P merely by selecting lower phosphorus pressures or higher temperatures, in accordance with the equilibrium data. Other techniques for the direct synthesis of microcry stalline B8P have also been reported.1°

Jan 1, 1968

By Anthony Anable

THE definite trend to stricter specifications with respect to hydraulic concrete has become increasingly manifest in the last six years or so; but it remained for the vast reclamation projects of the Bureau of Recla-mation of the Department of the Interior of the last few years to focus attention on this trend, and to demonstrate how thousands of tons of concrete-making aggregates can be produced continuously and auto-matically with a control of fineness comparable with that obtained with small samples in well equipped private and governmental laboratories. Pioneer work in this direction was done, to be sure, by private com-panies, notably the Kaiser Paving Co. of San Francisco, prior to the present vast public works program. Then in 1931 came the first great aggregates-preparation plant of the Six Companies, Inc. to supply. construction materials for Boulder Dam' in Nevada, and now, in 1936, the aggregates plant of the Mason-Walsh-Atkinson-Kier Co., general con¬tractors on the Grand Coulee dam in Washington. At Boulder dam and to an even greater degree at Grand Coulee dam, sand production is recognized as probably the most important single element affecting the physical characteristics of the concrete. For in the construction of dams accurate grading of the fine aggregate has consider-able bearing on the attainment of a uniform and homogeneous concrete of a high degree of workability and placeability and, at the same time, combining high density and low cement content. Low cement content is of value not only from the standpoint of economy but also because the use of an unnecessarily rich concrete causes certain undesirable characteristics to develop. This paper will relate how at Grand Coulee dam methods that are more advanced than ever before are producing four sizes of gravel and a sand having a fineness modulus of 2.5-3.0. The design capacity is 1000 tons an hour. Significantly, the methods and equipment employed are broadly those that have been used for a generation in metallurgical mills for accurately sizing and grading both precious

Jan 1, 1936

By K. Huessener

INTRODUCTION THIS paper attempts a survey of the principles involved in the com¬bustion of blast-furnace gas in boilers and stoves. I do not expect to be able to give much information which is actually new, since the laws and methods of calculation pertaining to this problem are contained in a number of handbooks; but, so far as I am aware, they have nowhere been treated exclusively with reference to this one problem of gas economy. The road which I follow is less that of strictly scientific research than that of the practical engineer, faced by operation problems which require a. quick solution by easily accessible means without a prolonged search in scientific handbooks. For this purpose I give a number of tables and diagrams, as well as the results of many years' practical working experience as combustion engineer, which I trust will prove useful to my readers. HISTORICAL Considering the tremendous efforts made during the last 15 years to increase the efficiency of all kinds of power plants, it is highly surprising that until a comparatively very recent period, progress in the economical combustion of blast-furnace gas has been so slow. The explanation generally put forth, that fuel has been so cheap that it was hardly worth while to bother about this economy, will not hold good, for the greatest trouble was taken to improve the combustion of coal and to reduce the consumption of steam. The most plausible explanation appears to be the general impression, held as an accepted fact, that gas, especially hot, uncleaned, blast-furnace gas, was not a good boiler fuel. Many managers of high repute had tried unsuccessfully to improve the conditions of its use, and the dictum went forth that efficiencies of over 60 per cent., particularly with high loads, were impossible. This was the situation not only in the United States, with very cheap fuel, but also in Europe, where fuel prices are twice and three times as high.

Jan 2, 1916

By R. W. Bond

The gas-lift is a comparatively recent development in the Oklahoma and Kansas fields. It was used to some extent in the old Dilworth field several years ago, but the first extensive installations were made in the Tonkawa and Garber fields in Oklahoma early in the year 1926. Compressor Equipment During the early development of the system, the equipment used generally consisted of small tandem compressors of about 250 cu. ft. per min. displacement, driven by automotive-type gas engines, using a short belt drive. These compressors were first installed at the individual wells largely as an experiment. After the experimental installations had proved the method a success, it was considered economically advisable to centralize the compressor equipment in strategically located stations. However, as the information in regard to "gas-lift flowing life" was anything but definite, and the most optimistic estimates in regard to it did not exceed six months, portability of equipment was still the first consideration in the minds of many operators, who continued to install srnall semi-portable com-pressors in their centralized stations. As electric power became available in the fields, the electric motor came rapidly into use as the prime mover for the small compressors. The operating cost of this motor is greater than that of the automotive-type gas engine for the same power output, but the greater continuity of service tends to balance the extra cost. Aside from the semi-portable units, a number of strictly portable compressors were used. These consisted of automotive-type gas engines direct connected to vertical compressors. The unit was assembled on one base and could be mounted on wheels or skids as desired. The chief objection to these, in the writer's opinion, was their small capacity— approximately 150 cu, ft. per min.—which made it necessary to use two, three, and sometimes more units per well, thus making the installation rather costly. However, they have been found valuable for test purposes and emergencies, where installation time is an important factor.

Jan 1, 1928

By P. F. MINISTER

AT Lime Spur, Mont., the East Butte Copper Mining Co. has been quarrying limestone for twenty years. The quarry is beside the Northern Pacific R. R. in the Jefferson River canyon, 4 ½ miles east of Cardwell, at Lime Spur, Montana. HISTORY This quarry was opened early in 1900 by Dan Morrison of Whitehall, the discoverer of the Morrison cave, to supply a demand for smelter flux. Limestone was sold to the Pittsmont smelter of The East Butte Copper Mining Co. and to the Butte Reduction Works. As no particular effort was made at the quarry to select the rock that delivered to the smelters was unduly high in magnesia and impurities. The East Butte com¬pany, therefore. Bought the quarry. in 1909 and confined operations to the high-grade beds in order to supply rock of the desired purity for its own smelter and the Butte Reduction Works until the latter shut down. It also developed a market for some of its rock with the sugar factories. The latter market increased until in later years all rock, larger than 4 in. in size over a bar grizzly, was being shipped to the sugar factories, and the rock smaller than 4 in. was being used as a flux in the blast furnaces at the Pittsmont smelter. In 1924, the East Butte concluded a contract with the Anaconda company for the treatment of its ores, and the Pittsmont -smelter -was shut down: which made the minus 4-in. rock a useless by-product. Since there was not enough revenue in the sugar rock alone and also because of limited waste room it became necessary, if Lime Spur was to continue to operate, to increase- the proportion of plus 4-in. rock and to develop a market for the minus 4-in.

Jan 1, 1930

By Jon J. Connor, Richard J. Ebens

The trace element geochemistry of the cherty clay-rich carbonate residuum cover in much of southern Missouri and adjacent parts of Arkansas was investigated during the earl 1970's as part of a statewide geochemical survey of Missouri.1-8 The study was environmentally oriented and focused on the character of the "natural" geochemical environment of the state. A great deal of effort was made to collect samples that would represent the geochemical variability of the near-surface environment in an unbiased way. In general, this was accomplished by use of randomization procedures in both collection and analysis. Most of the sampling sites were selected randomly to prevent personal bias from entering into sample selection. In the laboratory, samples were analyzed in a randomized sequence to circumvent the effects of any systematic bias that may have entered into the laboratory procedures. Several residuum samples contained 1000 parts per million (ppm) or more of lead, zinc, and barium. All these samples were collected in Washington County in or near the barite district. The frequency distributions shown in [Fig. 1] indicate just how unusual the residuum in Washington County is with regard to these three metals and copper. The shaded parts of the histograms represent the samples from Washington County. The histograms are based on analyses of 141 samples from 38 localities scattered over the subcrop of the Cambrian and Ordovician formations of southern Missouri and northern Arkansas. Eight localities were selected randomly from over each of four bedrock units-Bonneterre dolomite; Potosi and Erninence dolomites; Roubidoux formation; and the Jefferson City, Powell, and Cotter dolomites. Six localities were selected randomly from over the Gasconade dolomite. The geochemical "background" for these elements in residuum is defined by samples from outside of Washington County (unshaded part of the histogram); lognormal distribution curves have been fitted to the corresponding parts of each histogram. Clearly, these lognormal models (curves) describe well the background distributions of zinc, barium, and copper. The background histogram of lead concentrations is notably skewed to the right compared to the model. Lognormal distribution curves were also fitted to the data on lead, copper, and zinc in the residuum of Washington County. No model was fitted for barium in Washington County because of the distinct bimodality in the data. All samples containing more than 1000 ppm were collected in the barite mining district and obviously reflect the elevated levels of barium in the district. The frequency distributions for Washington County are clearly anomalous with respect to the background data, those for lead, zinc, and barium being exceptionally so. The models for anomalous lead, zinc, and copper seem to fit reasonably well, although the scatters in the lead and zinc anomalies are considerably larger than the scatters in the corresponding background data. The copper anomaly, although probably real, is greatly subdued compared to that of lead and zinc. Also, it has a scatter similar to that of the copper background, rather than being enhanced like the scatters of the lead and zinc anomalies. On the basis of techniques described by Miesch,4 the chemical abundance of copper, lead, and zinc in residuum in

Jan 1, 1980

By David B. Reger

The year 1935 was mostly quiet in West Virginia, and devoted to routine drilling in old pools and extensions. A notable exception to this general rule, however, was the further development and proving of a field of gas discovered in 1930 in the deep Oriskany sand (L. Dev.) in Kanawha County, as later discussed. No new pools of oil were found and little or no attempt was made to search for them. No new pools of gas were recorded but various extensions of old pools were made. There were no new pipe line extensions of consequence, either for oil or gas. Operating technology was much the same as in recent years, there having been some further advances in repressuring oil wells and in the use of acid for treating small wells in calcareous formations, and some change in the technique of shooting gas wells. Financially, there has been a full market for all crude oil produced and a fair market for gas. There have been occasional transfers of producing oil or gas properties, mainly between established companies. Most of the attempts made to finance mergers and new developments have failed largely because of difficulties encountered under the Federal securities act. This situation has prevented the normal turnover of properties by small operators who frequently desire to sell partly developed interests and then step out into new ventures. New Development In 1935 the State issued 569 permits for drilling and records the same number of completions. One trade journal records 533 completions and another 483. A running record kept by the writer accounts for 713 completions, with 156 oil wells, 417 gas wells and 140 dry holes (Table 3). Some of these completions may be old wells drilled to deeper sands. Some, apparently, have been drilled without legal permit. Extensions of Producing Areas Ritchie County has again led all others in new drilling, with 137 completions as compared to 74 in Calhoun and 61 in Cabell. This Ritchie County drilling was done mainly to extend or further develop old pools

Jan 1, 1936

By David B. Reger

The year 1935 was mostly quiet in West Virginia, and devoted to routine drilling in old pools and extensions. A notable exception to this general rule, however, was the further development and proving of a field of gas discovered in 1930 in the deep Oriskany sand (L. Dev.) in Kanawha County, as later discussed. No new pools of oil were found and little or no attempt was made to search for them. No new pools of gas were recorded but various extensions of old pools were made. There were no new pipe line extensions of consequence, either for oil or gas. Operating technology was much the same as in recent years, there having been some further advances in repressuring oil wells and in the use of acid for treating small wells in calcareous formations, and some change in the technique of shooting gas wells. Financially, there has been a full market for all crude oil produced and a fair market for gas. There have been occasional transfers of producing oil or gas properties, mainly between established companies. Most of the attempts made to finance mergers and new developments have failed largely because of difficulties encountered under the Federal securities act. This situation has prevented the normal turnover of properties by small operators who frequently desire to sell partly developed interests and then step out into new ventures. New Development In 1935 the State issued 569 permits for drilling and records the same number of completions. One trade journal records 533 completions and another 483. A running record kept by the writer accounts for 713 completions, with 156 oil wells, 417 gas wells and 140 dry holes (Table 3). Some of these completions may be old wells drilled to deeper sands. Some, apparently, have been drilled without legal permit. Extensions of Producing Areas Ritchie County has again led all others in new drilling, with 137 completions as compared to 74 in Calhoun and 61 in Cabell. This Ritchie County drilling was done mainly to extend or further develop old pools

Jan 1, 1936

By Gerald C. Mathis

FERGUS County, Mont., shown in Fig. 1, is known for its once famous gold mines near the old towns of Gilt Edge, Maiden, and Kendall. But at Heath, a small farming community near the foothills of the Snowy Mountains, thousands of tons of gypsum have been mined since 1916. The value of the gold taken from the mines of Fergus County runs into millions of dollars; the value of the products made from the gypsum of the Heath mine is also in the millions. The gypsum mine will continue to produce for many years, while the gold mines are closed today. The Heath gypsum mine was developed by the Northwest Gypsum Co. in 1916. The products of the small mill built by this company were plaster, agricultural gypsum, and raw gypsum for cement manufacturing. The United States Gypsum Co. prospected the adjacent property in 1916 and 1917 by means of two adits and some exploration drill holes. During World War I, the company abandoned operations at Heath, but again became active in this area in 1928 hen it purchased all the property of the Northwest Gypsum Co. A long range program of expansion was begun with the building of a block plant and the purchase of additional land and mineral rights. A modern wall board plant was built in 1936. When the old wooden mill purchased from the Northwest Gypsum Co. burned in 1937, an all-metal calcining plant located at Blue Rapids, Kansas, was dismantled, moved to Heath, and erected on the site of the mill. In August 1951 a new mine was opened 3000 ft north of the mill. Rock is conveyed from the mine to the mill by an 18-in. belt conveyor. The Heath gypsum deposit lies at the base of the Ellis formation of Jurassic Age. The Ellis at Heath lies unconformably on the black fissle shale of the Heath formation of the Big Snowy Group, which is Mississippian in age. The strike of the gypsum bed is N45°E and the dip approximately 3" NW; the regional strike and dip of the area. The gypsum lies in a series of six layers separated from each other by thin seams of shale. The lower layer is composed of' gypsum and shale intermingled and is not of commercial grade. The upper five layers are high in purity, but only the middle four layers are mined on the advance, as the top layer is left for roof support. This top layer is mined on retreating operations at the same time the pillars are robbed. Total thickness of the gypsum layers varies from 12 to 14 ft. Fig. 2 shows the average thickness and arrangement of the layers. Mining Methods The mine was originally developed by driving an adit into the gypsum horizon. The Northwest Gypsum Co. mined in the top four layers, the top layer being split, leaving about 12 in. for roof support. A modified room and pillar method was used: entries were 15 ft wide and rooms varied between 20 and 30 ft and were turned on 90" from the entries. Crosscuts between the rooms left pillars from 10 to 20 ft square. The rock was loaded by hand into 1-ton mine cars and pulled to a central gathering point by mules; from the gathering point, mules or horses were used to pull the string of cars to the mill tipple. This method was continued by the United States Gypsum Co. from 1928 to 1937.

Jan 1, 1954