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By N. Chow

The recovery of manganese from lower-grade resources has been studied for a number of years. Of key importance in prior work was the discovery that higher-valent manganese can be readily leached with sulfurous acid. This eliminates the need for high-temperature reduction roasting that is conventionally used in processing high-grade material. High-temperature roasting is energy intensive, emits a large amount of carbon dioxide and would not be economical for processing lower grade material. While the prior work provides important information for extracting manganese from lower-grade resources, the production of unwanted byproducts and high water and energy usage has limited its commercial use. This paper describes the results from laboratory work that demonstrate solutions to problems that to this point have precluded commercial development. Preliminary mass and energy balances show that a significant opportunity exists in producing manganese with this hydrometallurgical scheme in a low-cost, environmentally friendly manner. The emphasis of the work is on low water use, low overall energy use and economic destruction of unwanted byproducts.

Feb 1, 2012

By R. J. Nankee

Coal is our most abundant, low cost energy resource. Expansion of its use is being challenged due to "SO2 emission" regulation with even more restrictive legislation pending. High quality coal reserves are becoming more limited due to greater use in recent years. Aids to allow more use of coal in today's environment include beneficiation of coal before combustion and scrubbing the emissions from coal during combustion. Dow's efforts to help meet these challenges by beneficiating coal include true heavy media gravity separations with chlorinated solvents and liquid/liquid partitioning processes and "Dow Solvent Recovery Technology" to recover the solvent from product (or floats) and rejects (sinks), The objectives of the efforts to clean coal are to reduce sulfur and ash. In this paper, the solvents will be described; a general flow diagram presented; some of the results on upgrading various coals will be described, and projected costs of full-scale plants using chlorinated solvents will be compared to conventional cleaning plants.

Jan 1, 1985

By Calvin L. Stevenson

The probability of a particle passing through a maze is predictable and consistent. This principle may be utilized to effect a particle size separation of materials by presenting a physical maze to a stream of material that will allow the fine particles to pass, while deflecting the coarse particles. A maze is effective even though all apertures encountered are many times larger than the particles being separated. By designing a machine that allows the probability parameters to be controlled and varied without changing physical dimensions, probability sizing becomes a useful tool for the separation of granular materials.

Jan 1, 1967

By Charles T. Holland

INTRODUCTION Insofar as I am aware, the term rock mechanics was not in the English dictionary in 1930 when I started my graduate program at West Virginia University. Hence, I never thought that I was undertaking studies in rock mechanics when I undertook to write a thesis on the physical properties of West Virginia coal. In this case, the subject was primarily concerned with the compressive strength of coal, the elasticity of the coal, the physical weathering properties of the coal and its friability. These days investigations of rocks pertaining to such properties are included in the term "rock mechanics". Other than this aspect, the principle interest in this part of my program was that I became interested in the strength of coal from the standpoint of structural purposes, and also became cognizant of its elastic properties as well as its energy storing properties. This research also tied in with a remark that Professor Lawall made in a Mining Methods class in 1928 when he remarked that a peculiar thing was happening in the southern part of West Virginia, namely, in the Pocahontas coal field. His remarks were to the effect that pillars were blowing up in the mines and when asked why he replied the cause was not known. The failure of three-inch coal specimens, especially those in stronger coal, in non-hydraulic actuated testing machines was reminiscent of his description of those pillar bursts or bumps.

Jan 1, 1971

By D. M. Fritz

Environmental experts face large and rapidly-increasing volumes of raw data obtained from environmental monitoring stations. These professionals must compile and analyze the data in a systematic manner to cost-effectively understand and minimize the impacts of mining. The shift toward desktop computing, combined with the downsizing of company staffs, has now more than ever created a demand for a modern, PC-based application for the storage, retrieval, analysis and presentation of environmental data. This paper discusses the general requirements of such a system, and points out specific ways in which such industry-specific software can provide convenient and useful access to the data. The software used to illustrate these features is the HydroDat program, developed by Western Water Consultants, Inc.

Jan 1, 1996

By Keith G. Wallace

The effect of face resistance on ventilation air leakage through stoppings was measured in a twin development heading. Face resistance was varied by alternately tightening or loosening the face line brattice to change the line brattice leakage. Results indicated that tight brattice lines are necessary to maintain acceptable airflow at the face but result in higher leakage throughout the entire system, reduced overall ventilation efficiency, and higher operating costs. Conversely, a low face resistance which simulated an auxiliary fan/duct system gave reduced stopping leakage losses, higher quantities of air at the last open cross-cut and greater entire system efficiencies

Jan 1, 1984

By H. Sevim

Belt network simulators developed in the last two decades are reviewed. Critical parameters in belt network design are identified, and the capabilities of belt simulators in providing values of these parameters are investigated. An alternative design model that optimizes values of the critical parameters is introduced. To illustrate the capabilities of the alternative model, a real life case is treated and the outcomes are discussed.

Jan 1, 1990

By Reul A. Dejú

The mineral olivine has been the subject of continued research by various authors. Paik (1967) conducted infrared and flotation studies of the adsorption of sodium alkyl benzene sulfonates on olivine. These studies are of interest from two points of view. First, in the metallurgical field it is of interest to understand the mechanism of silicate flotation using sulfonate collectors and second to a hydrologist studying the pollution of surface or subsurface waters it is of interest to study the reactions taking place when water plus sulfonates encounter a porous (silicate) medium. On the basis of Paik's study he was able to postulate a possible mechanism for the attachment of RSO3 (sulfonate radical) to the olivine surface. Parks (1969) has been studying the important influence of the structure of a silicate such as olivine on its dissolution mechanism and its related surface charge. Also Luce, a student of Parks (1964, 1965) has been studying the kinetics of dissolution of olivine using the techniques of direct solution analysis and infrared analysis. Certainly a classic in the study of silicate dissolution is the work of Murata (1940) on the reaction of orthosilicates (olivine in particular) with strong acid solutions. Many authors (Dejú and Bhappu, 1966. 1967. 1968, Dejú, 1969; Rhoades and Krueger. 1968, and Faust and blunter, 1967) have reported studies of the behavior of silicates immersed in water (especially orthosilicates) and have found that there is an exchange of cations from the silicate surface for H+ from the water. Studies by Dejú and Bhappu have also included the system olivine-water-amine.

Jan 1, 1971

By J. B. Goddard

Abstract. Leaching of, uranium in situ from sandstone deposits with ammonium carbonate solution containing: dissolved oxygen occurs rapidly compared with the leaching of the bulk of the sulfur present as FeS2. However because of their high reducing, capacity and their relative abundance, the FeS2 minerals consume; the bulk of the oxidants A pressure leach apparatus was-construtted which permitted the measurement of oxygen consumtion by FeS2. Oxygen consumption by FeS2 is best described by a first-order reaction. The experimental rate constants for various cores are roughly proportional to their FeS2 contents.

Jan 1, 1980

By Stephen C. Tadolini, Colton Cook, Cody Hildreth, Frederick Cybulski

"Broken and jointed ground is extremely hazardous and requires unique stabilization techniques to protect worker and critical entries. Bolting techniques, even the most advanced with pre-load to create roof compression, can leave large gaps of unconfined and separated roof. This roof can also be susceptible to water inflows which only exacerbate the support problem. These types of conditions existed on long term development main entry accessing several future longwall panels. The geotechnical assessment identified well-defined jointing systems that also permitted water to flow between the roof separations, which “lubricated” the roof material and minimized any frictional advantages. Chemical injection of a Polyurethane material, Minova Carbopur WS, was placed beyond the bolted horizon to move the water to the rib lines and reinforce the fractured and broken roof. The injection material permitted the effective use of bolting patterns and helped ensure long-term stability of these critical entries. The paper describes the evaluation techniques, design patterns, basis for chemical selection and application, and results and recommendations.BACKGROUNDThe injection of mine and underground civil structures using polyurethane (PUR) has been ongoing for over 50 years. The applications in mining have included gate road stabilizations, longwall set-up and tear-down entries, and simple consolidation of coal mine roofs. PURs have also been used for roof stabilization during longwall shield recoveries. Polyurethane injection was initially developed by the Bergbau-Forshung GmbH, a German coal mine research institute, in the early 1960s (Jankowski, 1972). The product became a standard stabilization method in Germany after its commercial introduction in 1971 (Knoblauch, 1994), and was successfully manufactured at the Minova Essen, Germany location for over 50 years. With the recent closing of the German underground mines, that manufacturing facility has been closed and moved to Katowice, Poland, where production continues today Injection products are also being successfully manufactured by Minova in Australia and the United States.Polyurethane injection in underground coal mines is used in difficult ground conditions in fractured immediate and main roofs. It is also common as a rock stabilization remedy to prevent longwall face caving during shield removal. As presented in the case study, polyurethane was applied to minimize the inflow of water from beneath a stream channel while providing reinforcement and consolidation of the fractured roof that had lost confinement. Polyurethane is a two-component system (Part A and Part B) that is injected into a borehole and can chemically bond to the rock, not relying on friction or mechanical interlock to provide support. The material is injected under pressure, coupled with a low viscosity and small particle size; it flows into roof fractures and separations, which are the paths of least resistance. New developments in low viscosity PUR materials allows penetration of cracks as tight as 0.002 inch (0.05 mm) wide. This also allows for the closures of extremely small cracks to minimize the inflow of water, even if the water is under pressure. Combinations of designed expansion properties and low viscosities make the materials ideal for minimizing and stopping flows of water from underground structures."

Jan 1, 2019

By Jan Visman, James W. Parkinson

GENERAL INTRODUCTION Sample collection, preparation and analysis are all steps in a single process designed to provide information about a much larger amount of material than the sample itself. For example, information about the ash content of a unit train load of coal may be derived from a single, relatively small sample of perhaps a few hundred pounds (liters) extracted from the entire shipment. These three steps can be thought of as links in a chain, allowing the simple analogy that the strength of the chain, or, in other words, the value of the information is only as strong as the weakest link. Sample collection, discussed in Part 1 of this chapter, is critical because analytical procedures can do no more than reveal the characteristics of the sample presented to the laboratory. If that sample does not properly represent the population to be characterized, neither will the analysis of that sample. Sample preparation is also a critical part of the chain. Any change in the nature of a sample between the time it is collected and the time it is analyzed will appear to reflect the nature of the population. For example, sample preparation procedures that allow air to partially dry the coal sample before reaching the laboratory will cause the sample analysis to indicate a lower moisture content than the sample originally had. Other changes can be more subtle. Second only to moisture loss, oxidation reactions generally cause the greatest problems. Oxidation of a coal sample can alter surface properties, changing flotation response. In extreme cases, combustion parameters, such as caking or agglomerating properties or mineral composition, such as pyrite content, can change. Water samples can also be altered by oxidation. For example, ferrous iron can oxidize to ferric iron, possibly changing water quality parameters such as pH. Sample analysis, the subject of Part 2 of this chapter, is the final link in the chain. Obviously, no laboratory procedure can correct for problems created by improper sample collection and preparation. At the same time, poor analytical techniques will create incorrect information about the total amount of coal from which the sample was extracted (the population) in the same manner as improper sample collection and preparation. The key to gaining correct information about the population is to view these three steps as parts of a single process. Following proper techniques through only one or two steps of the process will not produce accurate information.

Jan 1, 1991

By J. Brad Dalton, Sam Vance, Trude V. V. King, Roger N. Clark, Raymond F. Kokaly, Gregg A. Swayze, Dana J. Bove

Visible-wavelength and near-infrared multispectral image cubes for the Animas River Watershed from Hermosa, Colorado to the headwaters at Animas Forks, Colorado were acquired on June 18, 1996 using the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's AVIRIS (Airborne Visible and InfraRed Imaging Spectrometer) instrument (Green et al., 1998). These image cubes have been analyzed using the USGS Tetracorder V3.4 implementation (Clark et al., 1995), an expert system which utilizes a database of more than 300 laboratory spectra of endmember minerals and mineral mixtures to generate maps of mineralogy, vegetation coverage, and other material distributions. Major iron-bearing, clay, carbonate, and other minerals were identified along with several minerals associated with acid-generating hydrothermal systems including pyrite, jarosite, alunite and goethite. Additionally, distributions of alkaline minerals such as calcite and chlorite indicate a relation between acid- buffering assemblages and stream geochemistry within the watershed.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. P. McCluskey

The effects of air quality regulations passed in the last few years have been felt in a more pervasive way by the electric utility industry than by perhaps any other industry. I'm referring especially to those regulations dealing with the control of air emissions from stationary sources, and those specifying the quality of fuel used. Particularly, I would like to describe some of the effects that these regulations have had on the Commonwealth Edison Company. To put the subject into perspective, a brief descrip¬tion of the company will be presented first. Then, a historical outline of some of the efforts at control of electric generating station emissions will be described. Following this will be an indication of the Company's response to early State and local regulations prompted by the growing pressure for stringent envi¬ronmental control. Finally, the Company's plans to achieve com¬pliance with the most recent, Federally approved, State of Illinois regulations will be summarized.

Jan 1, 1973

By Bruce Kennedy, William Hustrulid

Georgius Agricola in 1556 wrote De Re Metallica, one of the first and probably the most famous of mining reference works. In Book 1 he reflects rather elegantly on mining and miners. "Many persons hold the opinion that the metal industries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. For a miner must have the greatest skill in his work, that he may know first of all what mountain or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks. Then he must be thoroughly familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices, gems, stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds. He must also have a complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works. Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying substances and of preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether diverse methods. ... "Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should not be ignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those diseases to which they are more liable than work- men in other occupations, or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or may see that the doctors do so. Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these workings, especially in depth. Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method of the construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, that he can draw plans of

Jan 1, 1982

By Peter T. Luckie, Felicia F. Peng

INTRODUCTION The maximum recovery of cleaned coal at the required quality is of major concern to plant operators. However, the quantity and quality of products of coal cleaning, predicted by theoretical calculation based on washability studies and determined in the operation of actual commercial cleaning plants, will be different for each coal. Therefore, during the last half century, coal preparation engineers have repeatedly sought methods for evaluating the technical and economical efficiency of separating coal in coal cleaning equipment and for predicting the quantity and quality of cleaned coal produced, as well as profit- ability for the entire plant. Many formulas have been proposed by investigators to evaluate the efficiency of various coal cleaning operations. Performance criteria in use today are capable of defining all of the important aspects of a given concentrating operation; however, each criterion has certain restrictions or limitations. It is important, therefore, to understand how such formulas can be used and the problems involved in their construction. Technical Measures of Equipment/Plant Performance Conventional measures for evaluating the performance of a preparation plant are generally the same as those used to evaluate equipment performance. Measures involving separation efficiencies are influenced by the following three broadly encompassing primary factors: (1) density composition of the feed coal, (2) design characteristics of the cleaning unit, and (3) relative density of the separation. Since separation efficiencies are dependent on factors involving the nature of the coal, they are termed dependent criteria and represent a very broad technical indicator of an individual process or plant performance. Performance measures known as independent criteria are influenced mainly by quantitative errors inherent in the design and operation of the processing equipment. Economic Measures of Plant Performance True assessment of coal cleaning methods require reference to economic measures such as profitability. During the years in which technical efficiency criteria for characterizing plant performance were being improved, coal preparation engineers were also seeking appropriate economic criteria to assess plant performance. Technical and economic effectiveness of plant performance are important parameters for coal preparation flowsheet design. The relationship of the technical and economic parameters can be formulated in an economic model and mathematical model with the aid of computers. The computerized models

Jan 1, 1991

By Hendri Silaen, Ishak Degei, Nicoll Soumilena, Arwin Edijanto, Avesiena Primadiansyah

PT Freeport Indonesia’s Deep Mill Level Zone (DMLZ) is one of three operating cave mines at the Grasberg mine complex. The DMLZ is situated in the East Ertsberg Skarn System (EESS). It is set 500 m below the operating DOZ mine and located approximately 1,500 m below the surface, making it one of the world’s deepest panel caving operations. Initial undercutting of the DMLZ commenced in the second half of 2015 and has expanded to more than 120,000 m2. High pre-mining stresses and the changes associated with caving, combined with a strong and brittle rock mass, led to significant seismicity and rock bursting. Stress and seismic management are the main challenges for the operation and have evolved significantly from initial undercutting to the present. Considerable amounts of empirical data associated with ground response have been collected, evaluated and combined with historical lessons learned from the Intermediate Ore Zone (IOZ) and Deep Ore Zone (DOZ) mines, which are located within the EESS. This has provided an improved understanding of how the various geological, geotechnical and mine design criteria relate to one another. Additionally, the information has allowed for the development and implementation of improved strategies for stress and seismic management in the DMLZ. This paper describes how these learnings have driven changes in mine geometry, layout, and support systems. Through comprehensive monitoring and detailed inspections, positive changes have been seen in the ground response, leading to an increase in footprint reliability and accelerated cave growth. The paper summarizes the key learnings at the DMLZ regarding stress and seismic management as well as the positive improvements towards sustained and safe caving operations in the DMLZ.

Apr 26, 2022

By J. C. C. C. Menezes, R. A. S. Silva, A. V. Colling, I. A. H. Scheneider

"Coagulants rich in ferric sulfate can be obtained from pyrite-containing coal tailings using a biohydrometallurgical process. The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between quantity of pyrite and rate of oxidation, with regard to the consequent production of ferric sulfate for potential use as a coagulant for water and wastewater treatment. Leaching experiments were carried out on the laboratory scale on four coal tailings with different concentrations of pyrite. Characterization of the coal tailings was conducted for the following parameters: total sulfur, pyritic sulfur, sulfate sulfur, organic sulfur, and elemental analysis of CHN (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen). The samples were also subjected to X-ray diffraction analysis to assess their mineral compositions. The leaching experiments were accomplished using a laboratory column constructed as a packed bed reactor with a sprinkling system in a closed circuit. After four weeks of leaching, the liquor was filtered and evaporated to an iron concentration of about 12 percent w/w, which is typical of the ferric sulfate coagulants commercialized in Brazil. IntroductionCoagulants used for the treatment of water and wastewater are predominantly inorganic salts of ferric iron and aluminum. Aluminum salts, including aluminum sulfate and aluminum chloride, and prehydrolyzed metal-ion reagents, such as polyaluminum sulfate (PAS) and polyaluminum chloride (PAC), are the coagulants most widely used for water treatment (Bratby, 1980; Tchobanoglous et al., 2003; Buzin et al., 2014).However, the presence of residual amounts of aluminum in drinking water has been controversially implicated in neurological diseases (Association of California Water Agencies, 2000; Becaria et al., 2006; Campbell, Hamai and Bondy, 2001; Rondeau et al., 2000; Walton, 2006). A possible alternative is to use iron-based coagulants, such as ferric chloride, ferric sulfate or polyferric sulfate, instead of the aluminum salts (Jiang, Graham and Harward, 1996; Jiang and Graham, 1998). Iron-based coagulants are commonly produced by the acid dissolution of iron scraps or iron ore (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003).Recent studies have shown that it is possible to produce ferric sulfate coagulants from the pyrite present in coal tailings through a biohydrometallurgical process (Colling et al., 2011). The main advantage of this process is that it does not require acid addition, which can be favorable in terms of production costs. Acidophilic bacteria, such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, can increase the rate of pyrite oxidation and dissolution by several times (Kontopoulos, 1998; Brett and Jillian, 2003; Johnson and Hallberg 2003). They can be highly significant in the bioprocessing of coal tailings for the production of ferric coagulants, as their action favors the acidification of the medium and iron leach (Colling et al., 2011)"

Jan 1, 2016

By D. W. Rierson

Svedala has a ported kiln process, designed specifically for the direct reduction of pelletized or natural lump iron ores. The process is called ACCAR. This ported kiln technology has been coupled with Svedala's GRATE-KILN System, for iron ore pelletizing, into the GRATE-CAR System for the reduction of fine grained ore concentrates through the steps of agglomeration, induration and reduction in a single production line. Additional applications of the GRATE-CAR System include: the recovery, agglomeration and reduction of steelmill waste oxide fines and the use of minus 6mm size natural lump ores to produce a highly metallized pellet agglomerate. Svedala conducts tests to confirm certain operating parameters through process simulations of the GRATE-CAR process. These tests are conducted at Svedala's Process Research and Test Center, Oak Creek, Wisconsin. Svedala also assesses issues of process variables, heat transfer, equipment sizing, retention time and endothermic demand associated with iron ore reduction using natural gas or coal as the reductant. The purpose of this paper is to present the GRATE-CAR processing concepts, the commercial production line and the testing procedures associated with investigating potential raw materials.

Jan 1, 1997

By Peter G. Chamberlain

Novel and innovative mining methods are attracting the attention of mining engineers at an unprecedented level. Historically, the US mining industry has responded rather conservatively to new technology. The financial difficulties affecting the domestic mining industry in the early 1980s changed attitudes toward new technology. The market contraction during that period, coupled with an expanding world mine capacity, created a serious oversupply of many raw mineral products. Many mining companies found that retaining a share of world markets while making a profit required drastic cost-cutting measures.

Jan 1, 2008

By Ken Wangerud

The benefits of historic mining to this country have been many, but have come at a cost to the environment that has only begun to be understood over the past twenty years. While estimates vary, it is generally recognized that there are over 200,000 inactive and abandoned hardrock mines, with most of them located in the western U.S. Only a fraction of them are believed to be sources of metal releases with significant adverse environmental effects to the watersheds and receiving streams. State water-quality and natural resource management agencies have noted that hundreds of miles of streams are metal-impacted, and the aggregate effects of these sites within watersheds and drainage basins is poorly understood. Resources for the environmental assessment of abandoned mine land (AML) sites and watersheds have been and continue to be limited. Few hardrock mining states receive substantial reclamation funds under the (coal) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. EPA Region VIII (EPA8) has an estimated 90,000 abandoned mining, milling and smelter sites, mainly in Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. An estimated 13,000 of the sites may have metal releases causing Clean Water Act and CERCLA non-compliance. Results of inventories by states and federal land managing agencies, indicate it is plausible that only 3,000-4,000 of these sites may be causing significant environmental degradation.

Jan 1, 1999