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By John E. Roberts

People are not a novelty. But the phenomenal numbers thereof, who have approached, settled, and been born in California in the past twenty-five years, are such a problem as to be a novelty in the broadest sense of the word. California, with less than 7,000,000 people in 1940, and over 19,000,000 in 1966. In 5 1/2 years, (1960-65) the southerly 14 counties of California, which together comprise one-half the land area of our state, had an increase in population greater than Colorado, or Arkansas, or Oregon, or any one of 19 other states.

Jan 1, 1967

By F. Kennedy

Consolidation Coal Company (Consol) supports an active R&D effort to improve the safe, productive mining of coal and to utilize coal in an environmentally acceptable manner. Attention will be focused on degasification of coal seams, continuous coal transport systems, earth sciences activities, and coal combustion. Brief mention will be made regarding the SO2 emissions control programs. The research program constitutes about 1.0% of Consol coal sales which positions Consol as the preeminent coal company supporting broad-based research addressing the full spectrum of the various problems associated with utilizing the nation's abundant reserves of economical, readily available fuel.

Jan 1, 1989

By A. E. Petersen

The United States Bureau of Mines conducted research on high-intensity magnetic separation methods for upgrading tantalum concentrates from Alabama. Process flow sheets were studied to maximize tin removal and minimize tantalum loss. Using laboratory-scale equipment, concentrates were produced which contained over 65% combined Ta2O5-Nb2O5. Up to 78% of the tin was recovered as a byproduct, containing about 70% SnO2. Only 1 to 5% of the tantalum reported with the tin byproduct. The producer subsequently incorporated high-intensity magnetic separation into its process flow sheet to provide concentrates for the National Defense Stockpile.

Jan 1, 1993

By A. V. Castelli

Weighting materials as we know them today were first recognized in 1922 by B. K. Stroud1. Stroud, who was supervisor or the Mineral Division of the Louisiana Department of Conservation, tested galena, cement and hematite as weighting materials and successfully used hematite to make a "heavy mud". The first use of barite was in the fall of 19222 . The process of adding heavy minerals in mud was patented in 1926 by Stroud and National Pigments and Chemical Company, a subsidiary of National Lead Company now NL Industries, Inc. The ground barite was marketed as BAROIDR barite.

Jan 1, 1983

By H. O. Seigel, John C. Robbins

Luminex is a new method of prospecting for mineral deposits based on time-resolved mineral luminescence created by an ultra-violet light source. Developed by Scintrex Ltd., Luminex detects and resolves a group of key minerals - either ore minerals themselves or, more often, accessory or pathfinder minerals for certain types of economic ore deposits. These minerals are commonly found on the earth's surface, even in areas of considerable weathering. The method extends the range of mineral deposits that are remotely detectable from the air. Tungsten, tin, molybdenum, gold, and bedded lead-zinc deposits are included. Therefore, Luminex is a natural supplement to the three classical methods of airborne geophysics. The luminescence of minerals has been known and used qualitatively in mineral exploration for many years. But there are more than 500 minerals known to be at least sometimes luminescent. Luminescence of most is unpredictable and the colors they emit may vary from locale to locale. It is, perhaps, this apparent complexity of the field that has discouraged its proper scientific scale until now. There are two basic types of luminescent minerals - intrinsic and impurity activated. In the first type, luminescence is an inherent property of the mineral in its purest form. In the latter, luminescence is due to the introduction of foreign trace elements, often in very modest amounts (ppm), into the crystal lattice. These trace elements are known as activators. There are very few intrinsic luminescent minerals commonly found in nature. Chief among these are the calcium tungstatemolybdate family, more commonly known as the scheelite-powellite family, and the uranyl minerals such as autunite and saleeite. The vast majority of other known fluorescent minerals such as fluorite, hydrozincite, and many calcites, are impurity activated - that is, they will not fluoresce in purest form. In addition to the many minerals likely to luminesce at the earth's surface under ultraviolet excitation, any prospector who has ventured out at night with a mercury lamp will know that much organic matter luminesces - for example lichens and even scorpions. Just as the eye finds difficulty in resolving the luminescence of minerals from that of organic materials, it also has its limitations at sorting out minerals from one another by their luminescent colors. Figure 1 shows, in part, the photoluminescent emission spectra of scheelite, hydrozincite, and autunite. It is clear that there is a considerable similarity in spectrum between scheelite and hydrozincite and a great deal of overlap. In fact, a small amount of molybdenum in the scheelite lattice can almost bring these two spectra into coincidence. On the other hand, the autunite emission spectrum is clearly resolved from the other two. Basis of the Method The right-hand side of Fig. 1 shows the time waveforms of decay of the photoluminescence of the same three minerals. It is apparent that the lifetimes of photoluminescence of scheelite and hydrozincite are radically different and that these two minerals, therefore, may be readily resolved through their emission lifetime characteristics. It is in the realm of time-resolved measurements (lifetime characteristics) that Scintrex has made its major advance in the Luminex method. With the exception of some work by Exxon confined to uranyl minerals, to the best of our knowledge, no systematic scientific investigation has been carried out in the field of time-resolved mineral luminescence studies other than the work of Scintrex. Scintrex's findings are that all organic materials and most commonly activated luminescent minerals have lifetimes shorter than one microsecond. In addition, only a relatively small number of minerals - among them those called key minerals, or certain ore and pathfinder minerals - have lifetimes greater than one micro-second. Scintrex is able to characterize these minerals primarily by their emission lifetimes and secondarily by their emission spectral characteristics. By a combination of these factors a mineral index is arrived at. From that, photoluminescent minerals can be resolved from one another with a high degree of probability. At least two spectral channels and two time channels - of which one can be common - are required to apply this mineral index. Ground System A portable hand-held Luminex analyzer based on a modulated mercury lamp has been used to date in Canada, the US, and Australia. The current production model of this device is the LG-2. It has two spectral channels and two time channels for each spectral channel. Figure 2 shows a ground Luminex traverse over the Texas-Arizona zinc prospect in Arizona. The instrument was set so the channel read was hydrozincite-specific insofar as possible. The mineralization in this prospect is known to be hydrozincite and other zinc secondary minerals in limestone. Figure 3 shows a ground Luminex traverse over the AAA uranium prospect in Nevada. The instrument was set to optimize the uranyl response. For comparative purposes, broadband scintillation counter readings were made on the same stations (also shown in Fig. 3). It is apparent that both the Luminex and the scintillation counter results reflect a near-surface distribution of uranyl minerals. It is interesting that no visible uranyl secondary minerals

Jan 7, 1983

By Charles Kimbell, L. Nahai, E. Shekarchi

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY World mineral trade during 1960 to 1984 has shown substantial changes both in value and tonnage. Although fuel commodities dominated total mineral trade during this period, this paper will focus attention primarily on nonfuel minerals. Brazil and Australia, modest producers of iron ore in 1960, have become dominant producers and exporters, together accounting for about half of major iron ore exports in 1984, far surpassing traditional export suppliers such as Sweden. Australia has also become the largest producer and trader of bauxite and alumina, and worldwide alumina trade has increased at the expense of bauxite trade. Similarly, shipments of ferroalloys have increased more than shipments of ores such as those of chromium and manganese. Canada, retaining its first rank in world export of zinc, has become also the leading source of potash and sulfur in world trade, and South Africa has been the dominant factor in chromite, manganese and their respective ferroalloys. Developing countries' share of world copper trade has increased, with Chile maintaining first rank, but developed industrialized countries have continued to dominate production and trade of lead and zinc. Phosphate, sulfur, and potash have been the principal crude nonmetallic minerals traded worldwide. Looking to the near future, dramatic increases in export of iron ore, phosphate, potash and sulfur are not envisaged. Bauxite exports will continue to decline relative to alumina but at a slower rate than in the recent past. Zinc concentrate will continue to be exported but lead will be traded more as metal than as concentrate. For iron and steel, there will be some production shift from traditional producers to certain developing countries and recently industrializing developing countries such as Brazil, India, the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan. In the following sections dealing with specific commodities, it should be understood that information is presented only on the major forms of each commodity that move in trade, and only for a selected group of countries for each commodity or major form of each commodity. Thus, totals shown or mentioned generally represent only the totals of figures presented here and do not include estimates for minor forms of material or for countries that are not listed. However, the data provided is regarded as sufficiently complete to reflect major patterns and trends, and exclusions are there- fore not seen as affecting conclusions that may be drawn from the material provided. FUEL AND NONFUEL TRADE Values of Fuel and Nonfuel Trade The value of world export trade in major mineral commodities (ores, concentrates and scrap, crude minerals, iron and steel, nonferrous metals, nonmetallic minerals and mineral fuels) in 1983, the latest year for which comprehensive data are available, was reported by the United Nations in May 1985 to have totaled over 514 billion current U.S. dollars (Table 1). This was 79% of the historic record high of nearly $649 billion ,current dollars set in 1980, but almost 18 times the current dollar value reported for 1960. [1/] The value of these 1983 exports in constant 1960 dollars was $164 billion (Table 2), only 66% of the record 1980 high of almost $250 billion, and only about 5.7 times the 1960 dollar level.

Jan 1, 1986

By J. D. Morgan

Introduction In 1987, the US economy continued to grow steadily, reaching an annual rate of $4.6 trillion in the last quarter. The value of domestically processed mineralbased materials rose slightly to $250 billion. The value of US metals rose sharply to more than $7 billion. Industrial minerals rose slightly to $18 billion recycled scrap was valued at $4 billion. Metal prices rose sharply toward year-end. A number of mining and metal companies experienced increased profitability, fostering more optimism about the future. Consumer demand strongly affects mining because the US economy is relatively saturated with long-lived products. Consumer, mortgage, and federal debt continue to rise. 244 million citizens already possess 170 million licensed motor vehicles and 100 million dwelling units. New car production fell 9% to 7.1 million units, but truck and bus production rose 9% to 3.8 million units. New housing starts fell 10% to 1.6 million units. Excess productive capacity exists not only in the US, but also in many other countries. Consequently, the US mineral industry is encountering stiff competition from others, as well as increasing competition from newer engi¬neered materials. Domestic production of plastics rose 9% to 25 Mt (27 million st) - on a volume basis, double all metals. Some 7% of petroleum goes to make petrochemicals including plastics. Imports of nonfuel mineral-based materials in 1987 were valued at $37 billion and exports at $24 billion. Imports supplied a significant proportion of total US consumption of several important mineral materials, including many classified as strategic and critical. In December, the Congress mandated that any major changes in stockpile goals be made only by law, and that the Department of Defense submit annually detailed stockpile supply/demand analyses. Concern about apartheid in South Africa continued, resulting in increasing interest about chromium, manganese, platinum-group metals, cobalt, vanadium, and gold. The National Critical Materials Council continued to monitor the US materials position. The Defense Production Act, authorizing priorities and allocations, supply expansions, voluntary agreements, and the National Defense Executive Reserve continues in effect through Sept. 30, 1989. Under the DPA, the US Bureau of Mines maintains the Emergency Minerals Administration. Further consultations were held with Canada to strengthen the North American defense industrial base. Coal production, 60% from open pits, rose 2% to 825 Mt (910 million st) valued at $21 billion. Nearly four-fifths was burned to generate 56% of US electricity. Exports included 42 Mt (51 million st) of metallurgical coal and 24 Mt (27 million st) of steam coal, with a total value of $3.3 billion. Domestic petroleum production fell 5% to 480 Mm' (3 billion bbl). Uranium mining, including recovery from phosphates, fell 4% to 5.9 kt (6500 st). Nonfuel minerals Major metals: Raw steel production - a major consumer of many minerals - rose 7% to 79 Mt (87 million st). Domestic iron ore production rose 11% to 44 Mt (48 million st), about 96% pelletized. Net imports, though, fell 8% to 11 Mt (10 million st). Raw steelmaking capacity fell 6% to 102 Mt (112 mil-

Jan 5, 1988

By J. Ainsworth, W. Trudel, L. Schutz, C. L. Bolin

Newmont mine geologists have added substantial economic value developing over 1,150 tonnes into quality surface and underground gold reserves since 1986. However, the recent 5-year gold price slump from $387 to $262 per ounce has shifted mine geologists focus to optimizing open pit profitability and developing high-grade, high cash flow and low capital development underground reserves. More than $65 million projected revenue has been added to the Gold Quarry south layback following multi-departmental model reconciliation investigations. Kriged mine polygon construction, controlled blast heave and high-quality geologic advice in selective mining will have multi-million dollar beneficial impacts.

Jan 1, 2002

By Gao Zhizhong, Zheng Shibo, Gu Zhengxing

Extensive research on the beneficiation of Florida dolomitic phosphate pebble has been carried out by Lianyungang Design and Research Institute of China (CLDRI) in recent years. Test results indicate that the fine-particle flotation process could be used to effectively recover the phosphate values from Florida high-dolomite phosphate resources. With the CLDRI fine-particle flotation technology, a phosphate concentrate with 31% P2O5 and less than 1% MgO could be obtained from a flotation feed containing 25.8% P2O2 and 2.2% MgO at an overall P2O5 recovery of up to 85%.

Jan 1, 1999

By F. Kennedy

Consolidation Coal Co. (Consol) supports an active research and development effort to improve the safe, productive mining of coal and to use coal in an environmentally acceptable manner: Attention will be focused on degasification of coal seams, continuous coal transport systems, earth sciences activities, and coal combustion. Brief mention will be made regarding the SO2 emissions control programs. The research program constitutes about 1 % of Consol coal sales, which positions Consol as the preeminent coal company supporting broad-based research addressing the full spectrum of the various problems associated with using the nation's abundant reserves of economical, readily available fuel.

Jan 1, 1990

By R. N. Rothan, V. Khunova, C. M. Liauw, G. C. Lees

The interphase modification activity of 1,3-phenylene dimaleimide (also known as m-phenylene bismaleimide (BMI)) has been studied in composites based on magnesium hydroxide (60% w/w) and a polypropylene block copolymer (PPBC) that featured an ethylene-rich elastomeric impact modifier phase. BMI was found to be a unique product that led to significant simultaneous improvements in composite strength and toughness, even at the high filler levels. BMI modification was found to promote encapsulation of filler particles with the elastomeric phase of the PPBC together with formation of a PP boundary layer of increased crystalline content.

Jan 1, 2003

By Y. Topkaya, Lloyd Petrie, Dianne Marozas, R. E. Johnson, Steven Paulson, J. H. Canterford, B. R. Palmer, R. B. Bhappu, Lorin Redden

This paper describes a fundamental approach to in situ leach mining (ISLM) lixiviant development which emphasizes leaching selectivity through detailed characterization of mineral-solution interfacial chemistry and post-leach geochemistry. This experimentation and modeling approach consists of: (1) petrographic identification of reactive ore and gangue minerals; (2) determination of leaching kinetics of individual minerals through batch leaching tests; (3) evaluation of bulk solution geochemistry through column leaching tests; and (4) ISLM simulation of element species transport and geochemistry through core leaching tests. Recent results confirm good leaching selectivity for manganese, but reveal post- leach precipitation and permeability loss during core leaching experiments.

Jan 1, 1993

By Regina N. Tempel, Timothy E. Eastep, R. Craig Ford, Bryce R. Roming, Geoff Clothier, Maggy F. Lengke

The Climax Mine, near Leadville, Colorado treats acid drainage in a lime neutralization chemical treatment system. Chemical treatment has been successful in reducing the concentration of metals to below surface water discharge effluent limits, but lime usage has not been optimized. A geochemical modeling approach has been developed to increase the efficiency of lime neutralization. The modeling approach incorporates two steps: (1) calibration, and (2) calculation of amount of lime needed to increase pH and remove metals. Results of our work quantify the lime treatment process and improve our ability to predict overall water quality.

Jan 1, 2000

By R. Larry Grayson

A survey of 1250 surface and underground coal mines across the United States was made according to a stratified sampling technique based on national coal districts. A total of 171 responses (13.7% response rate) have been returned and summarized, giving a picture of computer usage in the coal industry. Overall, 63.5% of the respondents use computers, but the percent varied from 100% for large mines to only 44.1% for small mines. As expected, a proliferation of microcomputers has pervaded the industry. Importantly, in spite of the high usage of computers in the industry, sophisticated engineering applications have not yet burgeoned.

Jan 1, 1989

By N. B. Greninger, M. J. Sapko

The US Bureau of Mines conducted, through joint funding with the Colorado Mining Association, large scale oil shale rubble fire tests to investigate flammability characteristics and different methods of extinguishment. Ignition of large rubble piles was easily accomplished. Foam blankets could be used to control surface flames. The results of these large scale tests confirmed that water was effective but not particularly efficient in extinguishing deep seated oil shale fires. It took up to 1.7 times as much water to extinguish afire as anticipated on the basis of a simple cooling model, assuming 100% utiliza-

Jan 1, 1991

By Takashi Sakaguchi, Takehiko Tsuruta, Akira Nakajima

Some attempts were made to recover gold from aqueous systems using immobilized persimmon tannin. This adsorbent adsorbed gold from solutions containing hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (III) with high efficiency, whereas there was minimal adsorption from solutions containing gold (I) sodium thiomalate and sodium dicyanoaurate (I). The adsorption of gold was rapid, and was affected by the pH of the solution, temperature, external gold concentration and amount of adsorbent. Adsorbed gold was easily desorbed with 1 M thiourea solution, indicating that immobilized persimmon tannin can be repeatedly re-used for the recovery of gold using adsorption-desorption cycles.

Jan 1, 1995

By G. A. Hazen, S. M. Sargand

This study monitored longwall mining subsidence profiles over three panels that were mined beneath state highways in southeastern Ohio. The average maximum subsidence was 1.07 m (3.5 ft). The average maximum compressive strain recorded was 0.008 mm/mm. Three predictive methods for the determination of displacements and strains were compared: the National Coal Board (NCB) graphical method, the profile method with empirical constants determined for southeastern Ohio, and a finite element excavation program. Excellent subsidence agreement was found with the profile method, and reasonable strain agreement was determined with the finite element program.

Jan 1, 1987

By K. N. Han, Y. Guan

The dissolution behavior of silver and copper from silver/copper alloys in ammoniacal solutions was investigated using a rotating disc. Oxygen was used as an oxidant. The effects of the alloy composition, concentration of lixiviants, stirring speed and temperature on the overall dissolution kinetics were studied. Three silver/copper alloys (containing 76.7, 46.9 and 24.1% silver) were used in this study. The rates of dissolution for these alloys were compared to that of pure silver and copper under the same testing conditions. Emphasis was given to the galvanic effect on the overall dissolution rates.

Jan 1, 1995

By R. L. Grayson, S. S. Peng

Sampling of respirable dust and analyses of samples have been partially completed for a longwall panel. Physical and compositional properties which have been characterized include: 1. Respirable mass concentration, 2. Mineral composition, 3. Particle size distribution by mineral, 4. Particle shape distribution by mineral, 5. Particle angularity distribution by mineral, and 6. Respirable size distribution. Analytical techniques used in the characterization of samples are described, and results are reported with emphasis placed on relationships between the various characteristics and worker locations. Details of existing mining conditions, equipment arrangements, dust control methods and operating system parameters are presented.

Jan 1, 1986

By M. Kaya

The main purpose of this study was to design a modular/mobile coal preparation plant with a capacity of 300 t/h for Seyitömer B3 vein (almost 70% of the whole SLI deposit). Firstly, coal washing properties and washability curves were determined by sink and float tests. Then, equipment sizing, selection, flow sheet development, economic evaluation, investment and operating costs were determined for coarse (-150+18mm), fine (-18+0.5mm) and slime (-0.5+0.1mm) coals. Economic evaluation of the proposed flow sheet showed the feasibility and profitability of the investment.

Jan 1, 2006