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By Charles Bohdanowicz

The accompanying tables' show that in 1936 production of crude oil in Poland decreased very slightly (Tables 1 and 5), by about 1 per cent, and that gas production increased by about 11 per cent. As in preceding years, drilling (Tables 1, 2 and 3) was devoted principally to extension of oil fields in the Jaslo district (fields 1, 5 and 7) and, in a lesser degree, of those in the Stanislaw6w district (field 27). Production of crude oil is being sustained in a large measure by the deepening of old wells; besides a total number of 183 new wells completed (Table 3) about 152 wells were deepened, and in a general way the results of deepening were better than those of new wells drilled. Reserves of "proved land" have not increased as far as crude oil is concerned, but a notable extension of gas fieldsZ was attained in Daszawa (field 25) and in the Roztoki area (field 5). In the sub-carpathian zone gas fields have been proved in the vicinity of Kalusz, Kos6wJ and in the northwestern sector of that zone, between Tarnow and Lezajsk. The gas horizons of Daszawa occur in the Upper Tortonian, those of Kos6w in the Lower Tortonian (Middle Miocene). Exploratory drilling has been performed near Kalusz, and has been commenced near Kos6w and in the Tarn6w area. The Kos6w gas approaches the "wet" type. A possible gas reserve with a volume of 4,000,000,000 cu. m. (141,000,-000,000 cu. ft.) has been calculated, for an area of about 5 sq. km. of the Daszawa field, on the basis of production obtained and of decreases in pressure and their distribution. The fields of Roztoki and Strachocina (No. 12) have not yet supplied sufficient data for a calculation of reserves, which might possibly be estimated at 2,000,000,000 cu, m. (70,000,-000,000 cu. ft.).

Jan 1, 1937

By R. E. Wade

THE Butte, Anaconda & Pacific electrification is of peculiar interest, in an incidental way, to the entire mining fraternity, and especially the engineering branch, not only in this great Northwest country but throughout the entire Western mining country, which is rich in minerals and water power. It is probably fair to say that the prime object of mining and smelting engineering is to reduce the cost of production, and in the case in hand the relative location of mines and smelter brings the cost of transportation of ore to the front. While some might assign this item to the railway people, it is inseparably a part and parcel of the general scheme of the production of metal from the ore. In considering the electrification of the B., A. &. P. railway the mining and smelting engineer, above all, wants to know what saving will be effected by the change in motive power. Unfortunately the new power has been in use during a very limited period and on the Smelter Hill section of the road only, and no reliable data, from actual service conditions, can be obtained until the entire electrified section has been in service for a reasonable length of time. Any remarks on this subject at the present time, therefore, must of necessity be general in nature and more or less descriptive. The railway, electrical and mining worlds and the country in general are indebted to the B., A. & P. railway for the pioneer work it is now doing, as it undoubtedly marks the beginning of the electrification, within the comparatively near future, of all transcontinental roads between the Missouri river and the Pacific coast. Together with this goes the development of an untold wealth in water power and all natural resources within the same territory. For the first time in the history of electric railway work, in this country, direct current at a potential of 2,400 volts is being used. With this potential there is a great saving in transmission of energy to the locomotives and there are only two substations, one at. either end and 26 miles apart, for supplying the power for the movement of trains of heavy tonnage over the main line and for switching movements at terminal and intermediate yards, and comparatively little feeder copper is required.

Jan 11, 1913

By J. Serra, M. Turpin, R. Alberny

A new method is proposed to obtain automatically an unbiased estimate of the interdendritic spacing A. It is shown that the structure can be built by a random distribution of a rectangular basic unit. The usual definition of the interdendritic spacing yields a value 1 which, coupled with A, gives the shape of the basic rectangular unit. A study of the relationship between dendrite arm spacing and solidification rate was conducted as a part of a research program on dendritic solidification. For any comparison between theory and experiments to be meaningful, it is necessary to measure reproducible and clearly defined spacings. Fig. 1 shows clearly that even in a fairly simple structure such measurements are difficult. if we compare photos (a) and (b), we can hardly assess which one shows the larger spacing. Moreover, the quantity to be measured can be defined in several ways. On a small scale, dendrites seem to be distributed in a very regular and ordered way. However, on a larger scale, this regularity no longer exists. The usual way to measure spacings is to pick up some rows of dendrite stalks; such measurements are obviously biased since less orderly regions are not taken into account. A more objective method is to section the picture with randomly oriented straight lines and average the measured interdendritic spacings. The purpose of this paper is to show that such measurements, which can be conducted automatically, yield objective and reproducible results which are directly related to characteristic features of the dendritic structure. I) THEORETICAL ANALYSIS 1-1) Mathematical Morphology and Function of Co-variance. Matheronl and Serra2 enlarced- the definition and geometrical meaning of the notion of covariance to encompass problems in mathematical morphology. A brief review of part of their theory can be stated as follows. Let A' be an isolated particle, and let us consider a group of two scanning points h is the vector joinlng these points, h its modulus, and a its direction. Let us also define a boolean function, k(x), whose value is 1 if x lies inside the particle and 0 if it 1s outside. The total number of events in which both points are inside A' IS the covariance Ii',(h): is the measure of the intersection of A' with the particle ALh obtained by translating A' of -h Obviously K,(O) is the volume of the particle A', or its area if A' is a two-dimensional body. The average value of K,(h), when the direction of a vector h of constant modulus is rotated, is: An important property of the covariance is illustrated on Fig. 2: if the shape of a particle shows some regularity along a direction a, K,(h) generally presents a maximum. We now consider a group A, made of many particles A' distributed in space; then k(x) is taken as the realization of a stationary random f~nction.~ The volume fraction (or fraction of area if the problem is two-dimensional) occupied by A equals the average value q of k(x): meaning "average value of"). We also replace

Jan 1, 1970

The Secretary : The work of Mr. A. E. Outerbridge, Jr., of Philadelphia, first made known in his paper on " The Mobility of Molecules of Cast-Iron," read at the Pittsburgh Meeting of the Institute, in February, 1896, has been reviewed by the Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin Institute, whose report, dated May 5, 1897, is accompanied with a table of tests made by the Committee, and amply confirming the statements of Mr. Outerbridge. Concerning the originality and novelty of his investigation, the Committee says: " The fact that a certain molecular change takes place in cast-iron in the course of time has been known and recognized by many persons for a long time, and that this change tends to relieve the internal strains and render the casting tougher has often been noticed and acted on, although in a very crude way; but, so far as the sub-committee has been able to learn, Mr. Outerbridge has been the first to make a careful study of this, and to note that the change may be hastened by impact, and the whole effect produced in a short time, and also to make a scientific study of the phenomenon. We believe great credit is due him for the initial observation and the careful work dependent thereon. The results were first given to the public in a paper read before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, on February 20, 1896. This aroused a wide-spread interest and discussion among users of cast-iron, and so far as the sub-committee has been able to determine, it has not been shown that anyone, either in this country or abroad, has antedated Mr. Outerbridge in his work in this line. The Franklin Institute therefore recommends the award to him of the John Scott Legacy Premium and Medal." This report has not been published, hut I have had the opportunity to read it in manuscript. The table of testa accompanying it comprises 91 tests of " rumbled" and an equal number of " not rumbled" companion-bars of cast-iron, 26 by 2 by

Jan 1, 1898

PRESIDENTS DAVID THOMAS 1871 R W RAYMOND 1872-1874 A L HOLLEY1875 ABRAM S HEWITT 1876 T STERRY HUNT 1877 ECKLEY B COXE 1878 - 1879 WILLIAM P SHINN 1880 WILLIAM METCALF 1881 RICHARD P ROTHWELL 1882 ROBERY W HUNT 1883 JAMES C, BAYLES 1884-1885 ROBERT H RICHARDS 1886

Jan 1, 1923

By Robert B. Fulton

The objective of this chapter is to discuss the interrelationship between industrial minerals and chemical manufacturing. It is intended to supplement rather than duplicate the commodity chapters. Particular emphasis is given to the pertinent chemical element and to market factors. Condensing this broad subject into a few pages of this handbook permits treating only the most important elements derived from industrial minerals. Hydrocarbons, which quantitatively dominate as raw materials for the chemical industry, are omitted, as are the metallic elements and the minerals covered in other "use" chapters such as phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen for fertilizers, and titanium dioxide for pigments. The remaining six elements of major importance are: boron, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, sodium, and sulfur. These elements are treated individually under separate headings. Table I (Jones, 1973) affords an overview of the main industrial minerals, the chemical products derived from them, and end uses of the products. Salt brines have particular importance as raw material sources for the chemical industry. Table 2 (Anon., 1967) is a chart of the chemical compounds derived from four types of brines: (1) Owens Lake-type brines, which are sources of boron and sodium compounds; (2) Midland-type brines, from which bromine, iodine, and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are derived; (3) Searles Lake-type brines, yielding boron, bromine, lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium compounds; and (4) Silver Peak-type brines, produced mainly for lithium. Market Attributes Some of the important market traits common to industrial minerals used by the chemical industry are listed below. 1. They are international commodities, such as fluorspar and sulfur, which largely move to foreign consumers. 2. Grade, and freedom from deleterious elements are important factors affecting their usability in chemical processes. An example is salt (NaCl) used in electrolysis where ultrapure evaporated salt is required to meet rigid specifications. 3. Purified products take on the characteristics of specialty items and command a distinctly higher price than the basic commodity from which they are derived. 4. In practically all cases, chemical users require some sort of cleaning or beneficiation of the naturally-occurring mineral to bring it to specification, and individual specifications may vary from user to user for essentially the same use. 5. In some instances it is necessary to strike a balance between what the vendor can supply and what the buyer requires, with the result that specifications have to be eased to afford the needed materials in marginal cases. 6. Because they tend to be bulk commodities, low cost for handling and transportation are important and such costs may limit the area from which a chemical user can draw his supply. For example, fluorspar from China and Thailand normally goes to Japan, while South African fluorspar can go either to Japan or to the US. 7. Shipments are usually in bulk and frequently in multiple-car, full-trainload or full-shipload lots to reduce transport costs, which in turn may require large terminal investment facilities.

Jan 1, 1983

MEETING OF SAN FRANCISCO SECTION Twenty members were present at the meeting of the San Francisco Section, May 20, 1919. Chairman Bradley being in Alaska, vice-chairman, T. A. Rickard, presided. Prof. Frank H. Probert gave a short account of the activities of the governmental commission, consisting of himself, George S. Rice, and F. G. Cottrell, which recently visited Europe, and studied the coal, iron, salt, and chemical industries. When the work is finished reports will he issued. He gave a resume of the history of. the changes in nationality of Alsace-Lorraine and 'described the importance of the region for coal, iron, and potash. With the return of these provinces France will have an annual output of more iron ore than she has coke to smelt it with; hence, the importance of the Saar coal field. With these new mines France will take the predominant position in the iron and steel-industry formerly held by Germany. Many details were given of the devastated mines of France, and of their former value, production and the destruction that overtook them. Noteworthy is it that much of the damage was done as late as Oct. 28, 1918, for the express purpose of ruining the country industrially. The damaged area of the Valenciennes coal basin embraced twenty-four concessions, three were damaged by artillery bombardment, but have resumed operations since the' armistice, nine had their surface: equipment destroyed by battle, pillage, and sabotage, while twelve concessions at the eastern-end of-the field suffered from wilful, systematic destruction. Of the 285 shafts in the district, 172 were flooded either by: turning surface streams into them, or, by wrecking the cuvellage; thus, admitting water and quicksand from the water-bearing strata above the coal measures. Two hundred and thirty-five surface plants were damaged, many of them to such an extent that they must be scrapped. These properties gave employment to 135,000 men before the war and, even admitting the remote possibility of getting workmen, the terrible destruction and devastation makes housing and living a difficult problem. It will probably be from 3 to 5 years before the mines are drained and information obtained as to underground conditions; to attain the pre-war output may require from 12 to 15 years.

Jan 8, 1919

By Pablo Hadzeriga

Great Salt Lake brine was subjected, in laboratory scale, to conditions simulating solar evaporation. Solid phases and the variation in composition of the liquid phase throughout the potassium salts crystallization zone are presented. These experimental results are discussed and compare with stable equilibrium data of the quinary system Cl-, SO4, Na+, K+, Mg + + and H2O. The Great Salt Lake brine in Utah is a vast reserve of several potential chemicals which has attracted much attention in the recent past. From the standpoint of an ore reserve, it may be said that the lake contains a low grade ore which has to be concentrated by evaporation of water. Because of the fairly favorable weather conditions in the Great Salt Lake area, it seems reasonable to consider solar evaporation as an economical means of concentration. From the view of phase chemistry, the main constituents of Great Salt Lake brine make it belong to the five component system: C1-, SO4=, Na+, K+, Mg++ and H2O. Because of their low concentration, the presence of other elements may be regarded as having little effect on the equilibrium of the five main components. Equilibrium data for the quinary system of our interest has been available for many years. Using these data, it is possible to calculate how the brine of the lake will concentrate when subjected to solar evaporation. In practicing solar evaporation, the weather factor and supersaturation conditions cannot be ignored, but their introduction into calculations using equilibrium diagrams is almost an impossible task. With the experimental work presented in this paper, an attempt is made to compare the stable equilibrium data of the quinary system as applied to the case of the Great Salt Lake brine and the dynamic equilibrium when that brine is subjected to continuous solar evaporation. Sea water brine belongs to this quinary system when only the major constituents are considered. The study of this system has been carried on since the last decades of the nineteenth century. The reason for these intensive studies was to give a geological explanation to the underground potash deposits. AS a result, many theories were presented trying to relate the equilibrium data with the geological formation, paragenesis and metamorphism of these deposits. Two main approaches were followed for the equilibrium studies of this quinary system. One of them, and the best known to us, was the school started in Germany in the last century by J. H. Van't Hoff. The other one, which started about the same time, was the school of N. S. Kurnakov in Russia. Both approaches were different and as a consequence generated opposite theories about the geological formation of potash deposits. The Van't Hoff school studied the quinary system of sea water under careful laboratory control, resulting in stable phase diagrams. During these studies, Van't Hoff recognized the difficulties in crystallizing some double salts.' ". . . . we unexpectedly found that some compounds whose formation in the solutions under investigation was possible at 25°C, nevertheless totally failed to put in an appearance. These, not to mention the calcium salts, were leonite, MgSO4 . K2SO4 4 H2O; kainite, KC1-MgSO4 . 3 H2O; and kieserite, MgSO4 .H2O. Even exceedingly slow crystallization with the addition of the compounds themselves did not remove the condition of supersaturation in the case of these bodies." However, those salts (leonite, kainite, and kieserite) were included in the stable phase diagram at 25°C as shown in Fig. 1 using D'Ans data.3 The figure also shows the sequence of crystallization of the Great Salt Lake brine according to the stable diagram. In later studies by the Van't Hoff school, especially by D'Ans,3 Karsten,4 Autenrieth,5,6 attention

Jan 1, 1968

By Harry C. Gatos, Frank J. Bachner

It was shown through high-pressure experiments that tin loss by volatilizatim is necessary for the degrada-tion of the superconducting transition temperature of Nb,Sn associated with high-temperature annealing. Crystallochemical analysis of the degraded Nb3Sn showed that it constitutes a new phase with ordered niobium-site vacancies, created by the migration of niobium atoms to vaccnt tin sites. This new phase was found to form when 4 pct Nb-site vacancies were present. It has a transition temperature of 6'K and a lattice parameter of 5.283A. A similar degradation effect was observed in Nb,Al. Its superconducting transition temperature dropped from 16.5" to 8" K following a high-temperature annealing. The superconducting temperature degradation in these 0-tungsten structure compounds is attributed to the disruption of the interchain d bonding by the periodic interruption of the niobium atom chains. By annealing the degraded Nb, Sn at 1000 C in nitrogen its normal superconducting behavior is restored most likely due to the incorporation of nitrogen atoms causing the elimination of the ordered vacancies. HANAK et al.' have observed low superconducting transition-temperature values (T, - 9"K) in some NbsSn samples deposited from the vapor phase. They attributed such low T, values to disorder in the 0-tung-sten structure. Much lower T values (down to 5.6"K) were reported by Reed et al.zC for NbsSn samples annealed at high temperatures. These authors also attributed this degradation effect to disorder (random occupation of the A and B sites by niobium and tin) but pointed out that such disorder could be brought about (by high-temperature treatment) only in samples containing niobium in excess of the stoichiometric composition NbsSn. Both groups reported that the normal superconductivity behavior could be rever-sibly restored by appropriate heat treatment. Courtney et al., also found that degradation in NbsSn requires excess niobium brought about by the loss of tin during the treatment. However, these investigators proposed that the degradation is due to niobium-site vacancies resulting from the migration of the niobium atoms to the vacated tin atom sites. They did not consider the reversibility of the effect. The present study attempts to establish the nature of the above degradation phenomenon. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES All compounds prepared for this investigation were made from the powders or filings of the elements which were intimately mixed, cold-pressed into a cylindrical pellet at approximately 50,000 lb per sq in., and then submitted to the desired heat treatment. The samples annealed under high pressure were placed in a MgO sample container which was mounted in a pyrophyllite tetrahedron designed for a tetra-hedral-anvil press. Details of the experimental arrangement are given elsewhere. This setup allowed heating at 1800°C or above under pressures in excess of 30kbars for 3 hr. The samples annealed in a vacuum were prepared in a high-temperature vacuum furnace which could reach temperatures up to 2400°C under a pressure of 2 x lo-' Torr. For annealing in a reactive atmosphere, a quartz tube was placed in a clamshell furnace and the desired gas ambient passed through the tube. Lattice parameters were determined using a Debye-Scherer 114.6-mm camera. Cohen's method, programmed for the IBM 7094 computer, was used to calculate the lattice parameter from the measured d spacings. X-ray integrated intensity measurements were made on several samples. These samples were ground to -400 mesh and the powder mixed with a solution of collodion in amyl acetate. The mixture was poured into a depression milled in a bakelite disc. When the mixture dried, the surface of the disc was ground flat leaving a diffraction surface defined by the face of the disc. The disc was mounted in a Philips rotating specimen holder which allowed the rotation of the sample in the plane of the diffraction surface and the integrated intensity measured using a scintillation counter and a pulse-height analysis sys-tem. The superconducting transition temperatures were determined by means of self-inductance techniques.' EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Role of Tin Loss in the Degradation of Super-conductivity. The loss of tin during high-temperature annealing can be effectively suppressed by annealing under high hydrostatic pressures. Accordingly, a series of experiments were performed under pressures of approximately 30kbars. This pressure was the minimum under which high-temperature experiments could be safely performed in the particular pressure apparatus employed. Experiments were also designed to test high-pressure effects on the superconductivity behavior of NbJSn. The results of the high-pressure annealing experi-ments are summarized in Table I. All samples were prepared as described earlier. They were reacted and homogenized at 1000°C for 24 hr under argon at-

Jan 1, 1967

World Petroleum Consumption. By V. R. GARFIAS AND R. V. WHETSEL. (Trans, vol 107). A tabulation showing world consumption of gasoline, kerosene, gas and fuel oil, lubricants, and miscellaneous petroleum products by counties in the years 1931, 1932 and 1933 , Totals are given; for instance, Cuba consumed 3,998,000 bbl of all petroleum products in 1933, in 1933; the world consumed 1,366,291,000 bbl. of all petroleum products, etc. Domestic Production. Annual Symposium of Petroleum Division, February Meeting, 1934 (Trans, vol. 107. 181 pages.) The symposium consists of reports on petroleum and gas developments and production in the producing states of the United States. This year the statistical information is presented in a new and far more comprehensive form. The reports on domestic production are as follows: Arkansas, by B C Craft; California, by V H. Wilhelm and H. W. Miller, Colorado, by C. E. Shoenfelt, Illinois, by A H Bell, Indiana, by W. N Logan and P. Simpson; Kansas, by Marvin Lee; Kentucky, Ohio and West Virginia, by V. C Smith; Louisi¬ana, by B C Craft, Michigan, by Theron Wasson; Mississippi, by B C Craft; Missouri, by F C Greene, Montana, by H. N Hickey, New Mexico, by C. E Shoen¬felt and D E Winchester, New York, by D. H. Newland, Oklahoma, by L. G. E. Bignell, J 0 Lewis and E. A Hanson, Pennsylvania, by G H Fancher, Tennessee, by L. C Glenn, Central Texas, by R B. Kelly and P R Martin, East Texas, by A R. Denison, Gulf Coast, by L P Teas, North Texas, by H B Fuqua and B. E Thomp¬son; North Central Texas, by J M. Armstrong, Panhandle, by R H Lynn and T. C. Craig, Southwest Texas, by 0. G. Bell; West Texas, by C W. Reith, Utah, by E S Shaw, Wyoming, by J G Bartram.

Jan 1, 1935

By Robert E. Green

Formulae are given for calculating the modes of wave propagation in a single-crystdl specimen possessing a given crystallographic orientation. Such calculations lead to determination of the orientation factor appearing in the Granato-Lucke theory for the attenuation of these waves due to dislocation damping. A detailed treatment is given for the case of an aluminum crystal possessing the orientation having a maximum Schmid fac -tor of 0.5. FOR a number of years the attenuation of ultrasonic waves propagating in metals has been used to investigate various phenomena causing internal friction.Most of the experiments were performed on polycrystalline test specimens and the waves were assumed to be propagating in an isotopic medium. However Alers 6 in 1955 and more recently Hikata et at. Chiao and Gordon,8 and Swanson and Green 10 have used measurements of attenuation of ultrasonic waves to study internal-friction changes in single crystals. These authors were concerned with the energy losses experienced by the ultrasonic waves due to dislocation motion induced by plastic deformation of the crystals. Alers measured the attenuation of 7 mc per sec ultrasonic pulses propagating in zinc single crystals before, during, and after plastic deformation. Simultaneously he measured the time-dependent plastic strain at constant stress in order to study the correlation between this strain and attenuation. The crystals were oriented in such a way that the applied stress provided a direct shear on the slip plane, thus causing the deformation to proceed by slip on this plane. At the same time the high-frequency sound pulses were sent through the crystal perpendicular to the slip plane. He found that the attenuation of transverse waves, the stress vectors of which lie in the slip plane, was very sensitive to the deformation. The polarization of the particle displacements, associated with these waves, relative to the applied static shear stress, and hence the direction of slip, had no obvious effect on the results. The attenuation of longitudinal waves was affected by the deformation only when the slip plane was not perpendicular to the propagation direction. This indicated that the attenuation was caused by dislocations introduced by the deformation and moving only in the slip plane. Hikata et al. made simultaneous measurements of attenuation, velocity changes, and stress-strain relations on aluminum single crystals deformed in tension. Both longitudinal and shear waves were used, at frequencies of 10 and 13 mc per sec. They placed emphasis on the choice of propagation modes and polarization of the ultrasonic waves, such that interactions between these waves and dislocations on selected slip systems could be investigated. They also selected specimens possessing specific crys-tallographic orientations, which allowed investigation as a function of the number of equally favored slip systems under the applied stress. They found that, for symmetrical orientations, the change of attenuation decreases with the increasing number of equally favored slip systems, i.e., in the order

Jan 1, 1964

By Reed W. Hyde

SOME information has been published on the sulphur dioxide concentration of gases from Dwight-Lloyd machines sintering lead ores but most of this relates to the customary practice in which the charge is relatively high in lead and is sintered in two passes over the machine. It is thought, therefore, that the following observations on sintering in one pass a low-lead, low-sulphur charge may be of interest. The data were obtained in sintering lead sulphide flotation concentrates mixed with minus 20-mesh oxide ore, the mixture carrying 16.8 per cent Pb and 5.3 per cent S. No returns were used because of the limited amount of sulphur available as fuel, but the mixture pelletized readily to make a satisfactorily permeable bed on the sintering machine. As there was a possibility that the SO2 might be utilized, a series of runs was made to determine the concentration of SO2 in the gases at different points along the wind box, and the effect on this concentration of changes in the wind-box vacuum. Several runs each were made with vacuums (as measured in inches of water at the wind box) of (1) 2 to 1 3/4 in., (2) 4 to 3 1/2 in. and (3) 6 to 5 1/8 in. The averages of the determinations from each series are platted on the graph (Fig. I). The vertical scale shows the percentage by volume of SO2 (as determined by the Reich method), and the horizontal scale shows the time expressed as percentage of the total sintering time. Sintering was considered to be complete when no SO2 could be detected in the gases. In all cases the depth of bed was 4 1/2 in. and the weight of dry charge per square foot of hearth area was 45.2 lb. Other data are given in the table. The volume of gases corresponding to the several points along the wind box at which SO2 determinations were made could not be measured, but has been calculated from the SO2 content and sulphur elimination on the assumption that the volume is uniform throughout the sintering period. This is not strictly true, as with a given vacuum the volume will usually drop slightly toward the middle of the period and increase toward the end. However, this assumption is a reasonable approximation. Several interesting features are brought out by these data. In general, the published data on SO2 concentration in sintering under ordinary conditions show a high SO2 concentration in the early stages followed by a rapid decrease in concentration and with relatively little SO2 in the gases from the last half or third of the operation. In other words, the greater part of the sulphur elimination is obtained in the first third or half of the period. In these runs, the 6-in. vacuum, which approximates the usual operating condition, gives a curve that follows this customary pattern. Maximum SO2 concentration is obtained 2 ½ min. after

Jan 1, 1942

By S. P. Ray, B. D. Sharma

THE activation energy values for self-diffusion in pure metals have been correlated with a number of physical properties such as melting points,1 valences,' Debye temperatures,3 and cohesive energy densities.4 Extending the melting point correlation, the self-diffusion activation energy values for the alloys can be similarly correlated with the solidus temperatures. For metals and alloys which exhibit phase transformations, such a correlation is not feasible because of the uncertainty of various physical properties of the corresponding phases. Using thermodynamical approach, Ardell5 calculated the hypothetical melting points of the low melting phases of the polymorphic metals. However, these calculated melting points do not show reasonable correspondence with the activation energy of self-diffusion. Recently, a new approach treating metals and alloys as electron concentration phases has been developed by Engel6 and Brewer.7 These workers have attempted to correlate the crystal structures with the electron configurations of the atoms existing either in ground state or in an excited state of low promotion energy. The basic postulate of this theory is that whereas the contribution to the bonding of the metal comes from the interaction of both d and (s-p) electrons existing either independently or in hybridized states, the existing crystal structure is controlled by the (s-p) electrons alone. Specifically, a metal is supposed to crystallize in bcc, hcp, or fcc phase provided the metal has one, two, or three valence electrons per atom in the (s-p) configurations. The diamond, or ZnO and ZnS structures, occur with four (s-p) electrons per atom. Secondly, the contribution of d electrons to bonding is supposed to increase with atomic number

Jan 1, 1970

By H. W. McQuaid

IT IS usually assumed that chemical specifications are sufficient for steel to be used for case carburizing, and if the steel analyzes within the ordinary limits specified for steel for this purpose, no difficulty traceable to the steel used should be encountered in obtaining satisfactory results in the case carburizing and hardening. Much work has been done to determine the effect of various alloying elements on the rate of carbon penetration, etc. but, to our knowledge, little if anything has been published in regard to the effect of the quality of the steel on the final results in the hardening of case-carburized steel parts. The writers believe that the structure of the case both before and after quenching is greatly affected by the actual condition of the steel itself as made, and that for good results in the case-carburizing and hardening departments, the steel should be of the best possible quality as regards non-metallic impurities. It is the purpose of this paper to prove that the presence of excess dissolved oxides in the steel, as made in the melting furnace, affects permanently the results obtained in carburizing and hardening and that it is possible that the presence of dissolved oxide can result in total unfitness of low-carbon steel for, case hardening purposes. When races and rolls for roller bearings are made from a low-carbon steel, case carburized and hardened, it is of primary importance that the results of this treatment be of the highest quality. It is necessary, therefore, that in the case-carburizing work each detail be rigorously checked to avoid any defects which would cause the loss of much time and material. The case carburizing with which this paper deals was done in under-fired oil furnaces. The temperature of each furnace is controlled by means of a platinum platinum-rhodium thermocouple, in connection with a potentiometer indicator and potentiometer recorder. The temperature of each furnace is registered every 15 min. by an operator, who is continually checked by the automatic recorders.

Jan 2, 1922

University of Alabama University, Alabama Mining and Metallurgical Society WILLIAM S. SPRINGER, President ROBERT E. MEAD, Secretary J. R. CUDWORTH, Faculty Sponsor MILTON H. FIES, Counselor University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona Miners' Society PERCY E. COE, President W. JAMES THOMAS, Secretary E. P. MATHEWSON, Faculty Sponsor B. R. HATCHER, Counselor

Jan 1, 1937

By G. S. Tint, M. Herman, V. V. Damiano

Dislocation arrays and substructures were studied in cadmium doped zinc crystals using a newly devised etching technique. Cadmium precipitates delineating the dislocations were revealed by etching a surface closely parallel to the (0001) slip plane. Cinephotomicrography of the continuous etching process revealed the three-dimensional aspects of dislocations in the bulk crystal. Dislocation etch patterns were studied in both deformed and annealed crystals after suitable aging at room temperature. The effect of annealing was evidenced by a rearrangement of the dislocations into low-angle boundaries and hexagonal networks. ETCH pit techniques have been used extensively to study dislocations in both deformed and annealed bulk metal crystals. Ideally one hopes to obtain a one-to-one correspondence between the etch pits and the points of emergence of the dislocations at the surface. One then attempts to deduce the way in which dislocations are arranged in the bulk crystal from the arrangement of etch pits on the surface. It is clear that one can obtain only limited information of the dislocation configurations inside the crystal from etch pit studies of single surfaces. Considerably more information is obtained if one is able to follow the course of the dislocations through the crystal using progressive etching technique. Techniques of this sort were used by Gilmanl to study dislocations on the slip planes of NaCl crystals and by Damiano and Tint2 to study dislocation arrangement in zinc crystals grown from the melt. The present paper makes use of a technique first described by Tint and Damiano3 to observe and continuously record the dislocation structures which appear while a crystal surface was being progressively etched. Studies were made on cleaved (0001) surfaces to reveal the dislocations along their length on the surface closely parallel to the slip plane. The technique for revealing segments of dislocations along their length by etching is well known. Wilsdorf and Kuhlmann-wilsdorf4 revealed disloca- tions along their length in aluminum containing a few percent copper, when precipitates segregated along the dislocations. The technique was used by Low and Guard5 to study dislocation configurations on the slip plane in Fe-Si alloys containing carbon. In the present work the technique was applied to zinc containing cadmium since it was shown by Gil-man6 that a cadmium-rich phase could be made to precipitate from supersaturated solutions along dislocations in zinc. Segments of dislocations delineated by the precipitates were revealed by etching a surface prepared by cleaving the crystal. The three-dimensional nature of dislocations and substructures was thus studied from the cinephotomicro-graphic record of the continuous etching process. EXPERIMENTAL Single crystals of zinc containing the order of 0.1 pct Cd were prepared by slowly lowering a graphite crucible containing the melt through a temperature gradient of 15°C per cm at a rate of 1.5 X 10-3 cm per sec. "As grown" crystals were aged for periods of 1 month at room temperature, then cleaved in liquid nitrogen, and etched according to the procedure used by Gilman.' The etchant containing 32 g of CrO3, 6 g of hydrated Na2SO3 in 100 ml of water behaved as a chemical polish for zinc and etch pits were produced at the site of precipitates or inclusions. After the precipitates or inclusions were removed from the surface, the etch pits left behind were eventually polished smooth. This behavior enabled one to continuously observe the surface while the specimen was immersed in the etchant. Best results were obtained when the specimen surface was vertical and the reaction products of polishing were continuously removed by gravitational convection. Some crystals were heavily deformed in excess of 25 pct strain, others were lightly deformed the order of a few pct by compression such that the deformation occurred essentially by basal glide. Some crystals were etched immediately after deformation, others were allowed to age at room temperature for several weeks prior to etching. Heavily deformed crystals were annealed at various temperatures and etched on the cleavage plane immediately after annealing, others were allowed to age at room temperature for several weeks prior to etching. The etched structures of deformed and annealed structures were studied. Similar experiments were conducted on 99.9999 pct pure zone refined Tadanac zinc crystals which

Jan 1, 1963

THE total crude production from the Dutch East Indies, and the British Protectorates of Sarawak and Brunei for 1932 is given in the following table: BARRELS BARRELS (42 GAL.) (42 GAL.) North Sumatra 4,226,935 Ceram 326,207 South Sumatra 13,956,157 Sarawak 2,739,650 Java 3,845,568 Brunei 1,322,725 Dutch Borneo (main island) . 9,406,733 Dutch Borneo (Island of Tara- kan) 6,579,184 Total 42,403,159 Production, which had shown a rapid increase from 1921 to 1929, has since been reduced. Exploitation drilling in the majority of the larger fields was suspended and existing production kept within predetermined limits by beaning. Most of the smaller fields were shut down entirely. The depth of producing levels varies widely in the different fields. Shallow fields with drilling depths to 500 meters (1650 ft.) are still numer-ous as well as those with depths between 500 and 1000 m. (3300 ft.). A few of the newer fields reach greater drilling depths. up to 1600 m. (5250 ft.). The deepest exploration well drilled to date (Djambi field, South Sumatra) reached a depth of 2332 m. (7650 ft.) before abandon-ment in March, 1930. The specific gravities of the various crude oils produced range between 0.65 (86.2° A.P.I.) and 0.95 (17.5° A.P.I.). The lighter crudes have a high gasoline content and fuel oils are derived from the heavier crudes, which usually are rich in paraffin.

Jan 1, 1933

By George Fancher, R. L. Whitting

A typical drilling mud from the Hastings oil field, Brazoria County, Texas, containing only 8 per cent (dry basis) of material of colloidal dimensions, which is largely illite, was concentrated to a density of 10.2 lb. per gal. and used in this study. The effects of water dilution, treatment with complex polyphos-phates, temperature and the time of heating upon the rheological properties of the mud were investigated. It was found that water plays an important part in chemical treatment and that sodium acid pyrophosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate were more efficient than other complex polyphosphates for chemical treatment. Muds treated with either of these chemicals manifested maximum reduction in viscosity and minimum filtration rates at low concentrations. Furthermore, .mud treated to minimum viscosity with either of these two chemicals was virtually unaffected by heat-treatment. Introduction The drilling of deep wells is dependent upon the use of drilling mud, and problems frequently arise concerning the effects on mud of temperature, prolonged heating and aging. The use of chemicals to control the rheological properties of mud is a well-established practice. Salts of weak organic acids such as sodium tannate or gallate were used at first until the complex phosphates of sodium were found to be more efficient. Consequently, it seemed important to investigate the reaction of a mud to chemical treatment with phosphates, temperature, heat-treatment and aging, particularly since previous work in the laboratory at the University of Texas had provided the particle-size distribution and mineral composition of Hastings mud. Properties or Mud Used in Experiments A large sample of the mud from a drilling well in the Hastings field, Brazoria County, Texas, was obtained directly from the circulatory system. Some of the general physical characteristics of the mud and other data are presented in Table I. Table i.—General Properties of Hustings Drilling Mud Alex- Cur-ander keet Well Well Depth when sample was taken, It.. 5720 5700 Weight. lb. per gal............... 9.5 0.8 Viscosity, sec. A.P.I.............. 47 60 Viscosity, Stormer, grams......... 80 Viscosity, centipoises............. 13 Filtration rate, c.c. per 30 min.a. . . 19.6 22.8 Salt content (chlorides), per cent... 0.13 0.12 pH............................. 8.9 8.9 The Alexander mud was used for the experimental work. Comparison with Curkeet mud indicates a considerably greater dilution but otherwise suggests similarity. The mineral composition and particle-size distribution of Curkeet mud (Table 2) are available (Fancher and Oliphant6). It is suggested that Alexander mud would have a similar composition.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. L. Whitting, George Fancher

A typical drilling mud from the Hastings oil field, Brazoria County, Texas, containing only 8 per cent (dry basis) of material of colloidal dimensions, which is largely illite, was concentrated to a density of 10.2 lb. per gal. and used in this study. The effects of water dilution, treatment with complex polyphos-phates, temperature and the time of heating upon the rheological properties of the mud were investigated. It was found that water plays an important part in chemical treatment and that sodium acid pyrophosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate were more efficient than other complex polyphosphates for chemical treatment. Muds treated with either of these chemicals manifested maximum reduction in viscosity and minimum filtration rates at low concentrations. Furthermore, .mud treated to minimum viscosity with either of these two chemicals was virtually unaffected by heat-treatment. Introduction The drilling of deep wells is dependent upon the use of drilling mud, and problems frequently arise concerning the effects on mud of temperature, prolonged heating and aging. The use of chemicals to control the rheological properties of mud is a well-established practice. Salts of weak organic acids such as sodium tannate or gallate were used at first until the complex phosphates of sodium were found to be more efficient. Consequently, it seemed important to investigate the reaction of a mud to chemical treatment with phosphates, temperature, heat-treatment and aging, particularly since previous work in the laboratory at the University of Texas had provided the particle-size distribution and mineral composition of Hastings mud. Properties or Mud Used in Experiments A large sample of the mud from a drilling well in the Hastings field, Brazoria County, Texas, was obtained directly from the circulatory system. Some of the general physical characteristics of the mud and other data are presented in Table I. Table i.—General Properties of Hustings Drilling Mud Alex- Cur-ander keet Well Well Depth when sample was taken, It.. 5720 5700 Weight. lb. per gal............... 9.5 0.8 Viscosity, sec. A.P.I.............. 47 60 Viscosity, Stormer, grams......... 80 Viscosity, centipoises............. 13 Filtration rate, c.c. per 30 min.a. . . 19.6 22.8 Salt content (chlorides), per cent... 0.13 0.12 pH............................. 8.9 8.9 The Alexander mud was used for the experimental work. Comparison with Curkeet mud indicates a considerably greater dilution but otherwise suggests similarity. The mineral composition and particle-size distribution of Curkeet mud (Table 2) are available (Fancher and Oliphant6). It is suggested that Alexander mud would have a similar composition.

Jan 1, 1943

By Albert J. Phillips

The effect of impurities on the flowsheet in the smelting and refining circuits for copper, lead and zinc is reviewed and the interflow of by-poduct metals from copper, lead and zinc plants is pointed out. The principal points of separation of all impurities in the circuits are indicated and the additional steps added to these circuits in order to effect impurity separation me shown. In this day and age, when difficult metallurgy is mentioned, one thinks of the extraction of more refractory or possibly the alkaline earth or rare-earth metals. It is true that the extraction of metals having a high affinity for oxygen and deleterious solubility for that element in the liquid metal, affords some of the most difficult extractive metallurgy problems. When this is coupled with an affinity for hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon a devious approach is required that sometimes rivals the complexity of the metallurgy with which this paper deals. However, in all such cases the aim is for a simple

Jan 1, 1962