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By Cecil H. Desch

THE progress of metallurgical practice and the demands made by the engineering industry on our foundries and mills have made the crystalline structure of metals a subject of far more than academic interest. Metals and alloys are made up of crystals. Even if we accept the view, so ably maintained by some metallurgists, that the crystals are separated from one another by an amorphous layer, it remains true that all but a very minute fraction of any metallic mass is crystalline. The conditions which affect the growth of crystals are therefore of importance in metallurgy. It is not only castings whose properties depend on the arrangement of their crystals, for the more we learn of the behavior of forged, rolled and drawn metals, the more certain it becomes that it is profoundly influenced by the size and arrangement of the crystals in the original ingot, deter- mining a structure which may persist in a modified form through a long series of mechanical operations and annealings. This is mainly due to the concentration of much of the impurities in the last portions of the liquid to freeze, so that the boundaries between single crystals or groups of crystals are marked out by a zone of segregated material, differing in properties from the mass, and offering a barrier to diffusion and equalization of composition throughout the whole. The importance of this fact has been fully recognized by steel manufacturers, who have to deal with ingots which are sometimes very large, and are cast at a high temperature, containing impurities which have a marked effect on the properties even when present in very small quantity. For this reason the Iron and Steel Institute has set up a committee to examine the whole question of the heterogeneity of steel ingots,(l)f and a report has been issued, containing an account of the structure of 16 ingots, ranging in weight from 15 cwt. to 172 tons, each of which was sectioned and examined by chemical analysis and by etching. A valuable body of data concerning segregation has thus been collected. The work of the committee is being prosecuted with great activity, and at the same time researches are in progress to determine the physical

Jan 1, 1927

By Tom Westgarth

As papers are placed before you upon large gas-engines in Belgium and Germany, it was considered that some information should be given upon the same subject in Great Britain. I therefore agreed to compile these notes, which I have made very short in view of the somewhat full nature of the other papers presented to this meeting, and considering the complete nature of the many publications which have been made recently upon the subject of large gas-engines. I give below Tables I. to VI., showing the number and particulars of large gas-engines which have been built or are building by British makers, and in view of the growing size of gas-engines I have concluded that engines less than 500 h.p. cannot now be included in the category of large gas-engines, and therefore I have not considered engines under that power.

Nov 1, 1906

By Joseph E. Pogue

FOR a number of years the petroleum department of The Chase National Bank has been making a continuing study of the financial aspects of thirty oil companies. (See Pogue and Coqueron, "Financial Analysis of Thirty Oil Companies," pamphlet, The Chase National Bank, November 1945, for data covering eleven years, 1934-1944, and the list of the companies making up the group. See also "Capital Employed in the Petroleum Industry," by the same authors, M&M, November 1944.1 This group represents a large sample of theAmerican petroleum industry, covering about two thirds of the business. Certain aspects of this study concern the capital employed in crude oil production, the main features of which arc presented in this paper.

Jan 1, 1946

By William Hume-Rothery

MR. CHAIRMAN, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: I need not say how much I appreciate the honor of being asked to lecture to you, and how much I would thank you for your kind invitation. It is encouraging to feel that the abnormal restrictions of the war have been relaxed sufficiently to allow a free exchange of scientists between our two countries, and I hope that some of you will be persuaded to go to England, and to visit us at Oxford, so that I may repay a little of the kindness I have received from you. As this is one of the first lectures since the end of the war, I have thought it well to describe some of the advances in the theory of alloys which were made in the years between the two World Wars. From the point of view of theoretical science, these years have been of outstanding interest in the history of metallurgy. They have been years in which the development of new and more accurate experimental methods has led to the revelation of many new facts. At the same time, the theoretical developments have enabled some of these facts to be viewed as parts of a general scheme, and we may say that some of the foundations of metallurgical science have been laid. This work was naturally stopped by the Second World War, and it can therefore be reviewed as one definite stage in the development of our Science. To illustrate the new advances, I shall deal mainly with the alloys of copper and silver, since these have revealed many of the general principles. SOLID SOLUTION At the beginning of our period, the first steps in X-ray crystal analysis had been taken, and copper had been found to crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure (Fig I). The determination of this structure naturally was of immense importance in the understanding of our subject, because it meant that we were at last in a position to appreciate the underlying structure out of which the crystal of copper was built. The earlier science of metallography had shown that in many alloys of copper the addition of a second metal in not too large proportions resulted in the formation of a homogeneous alloy which was regarded as a solid solution of the one metal in copper. Fig 2, for example, shows the so-called equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc alloys, and here you will see that there is a solid solution of zinc in copper extending to something of the order 35 to 40 at. pct zinc.

Jan 1, 1947

By OTTO HERRES

TITANIUM is estimated to be the ninth most plentiful element, ranking after iron, aluminum, and magnesium, and ahead of copper, lead, and zinc. Vast quantities of titanium are widespread throughout the world in ore deposits and beach sands. Before the war, processing plants were operated in England, France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Russia, Australia, United States, and Japan. In spite of its widespread occurrence, however, the U. S. Department of Justice has held the titanium industry to be a world monopoly and action was taken in the Federal court during the summer of 1945 to enjoin international patent and marketing agreements and to restore free competition. Possibly the rather surprising lack of public familiarity with this industry of international importance arises from its astonishingly rapid development and growth in the strong hands of some of the greatest chemical companies in the world, including the important foreign companies, Imperial Chemical Industries (British), Montecatini (Italian), I. G. Farben (German), and Titan Kogko Kabushiki Kaisha (Japanese). The rapid growth of the titanium industry in the United States is indicated by a tenfold increase of ore imports in the 1930 to 1940 decade before the war began to affect shipments from overseas. The fact that the industry formerly derived practically all ore for chemical processing in American plants from foreign sources probably also accounts for lack of general public knowledge of titanium. In 1939, to meet the requirements of increasing demand for the white pigment. titanium dioxide, more than 250,000 tons of titanium concentrates moved to this country, principally from the Travancore coast of India where the ilmenite concentrate from the beach sand runs as high as 60 per cent in titanium dioxide. Global warfare put a stop to shipping and thus gave rise to the development of titanium mining on a substantial scale in the United States during 1941.

Jan 1, 1946

By S. H. Penn

One of the more challenging aspects of the unfolding age of space travel centers about the opportunity for man to use the natural resources of other worlds. The first of the extraterrestrial worlds to be exploited will be the moon. After only a scant few thousand years of scratching the earth's crust, man will embark upon a venture that for centuries has excited the imagination of many (while staggering that of most) and may become a reality within the next decade. There has never been a time when so much money and effort will have been expended to exploit an area about which so little is known. Paradoxically, this effort combines much of the detached objectivity so typical of our analytical time with the proverbial optimism of the indefatigable prospector. As the earliest manned lunar missions will be brief and exploratory in nature, astronauts will not be expected to attempt to exploit any of the possible lunar natural resources. In later missions, with a more extended period of time available for the astronauts to stay on the moon, it may be desirable or even necessary to "live off the land". The resulting exploitation of lunar resources will be intended primarily to reduce the dependence of manned missions upon terrestrial logistic support and to reduce the cost of maintaining lunar bases.

Jan 3, 1966

By CHARLES M. SCHWAB

THE ENGINEERS have placed this great country of ours in a preeminent position with everything pertaining to manufacture, metallurgy, and the kindred arts. We are second to none in the world. We have a country which, another speaker has said, God has endowed with such riches in coal and natural resources as no other country in the world. But rich as these are, there is one thing greater; the sturdy character, energy, and integrity of its people, which will make these great resources an influence in the world's developments. Great as are these resources and the energy and integrity of our people, there is one problem of our .engineering, which I term human engineering, that is of far more importance than the creation of machines and methods, with which you have been so successful in the past. Of what value is the skillfully devised machinery, the complex process, unless manned and operated by people whose heart and soul are in sympathy with the work they are doing and who have before them the giving of a complete day's work for a day's pay?

Jan 1, 1920

By William M. Baldwin

Jan 1, 1946

By William M. Baldwin

Jan 1, 1946

By J. B. DILWORTA

Ix estimating the investment-value of a mining-property or plant, the value of which decreases with operation, it is often necessary to know the sum which must be set aside periodically from earnings either to renew the plant at the end off its life, or to return the capital involved when the earning-power of the investment has ceased. In such cases it is manifestly incorrect simply to divide the total amount to be retired by the number of periods (usually years) during which the investment shall be active, as the sums periodically withdrawn have a certain interest-earning power varying with the length of time they are held and with the opportunities afforded for their investment. But though the interest may be considered to accumulate regularly year by year, yet the rules and tables for compound interest do not apply, owing to the addition of a fixed amount of new money to the total at the beginning of each period. Briefly stated, the problem of sinking-funds is, to find the amount of money which must be periodically set aside at a certain rate of interest, regularly compounded, to yield a certain sum in a given, length of time. In most practical cases the interest is compounded and the fresh amount added at the same time-usually once a year-and on this basis the problem may be solved as follows

Nov 1, 1909

By Frank Firmstone

In the summer of 1842 my father, William Firmstone, was engaged by Charles Jackson, Jr., of Boston, to examine the conditions in the Lehigh valley as a site for blast-furnaces using anthracite for fuel. In consequence of his report, he was further engaged by Mr. Jackson to build a furnace for him and his partners on the Lehigh canal, 2 miles above the mouth of the river at Easton. Work was begun in the fall of 1842, and the first furnace blown-in in 1844. The history of the works, therefore, from 1844 to 1887, when my own connection with them ceased, covers only four years less than the whole period of the rise, culmination, and commencement of the decline in the smelting of iron with anthracite in America, the beginning of which, in a commercial sense, may be put in 1839.' Although this paper, as the title indicates, is concerned almost exclusively with the furnaces at Glendon, still what was done there was more or less influenced by current opinion in the district, and even reflects, to some extent, the changes in opinion and practice with mineral fuel the world over. No. 1 Furnace was built of red brick, on four piers, had three tuyeres and fore-hearth and tymp, as was universal with furnaces using mineral fuel until the introduction of Lurmann's cinder-tuyere. The dimensions and profile are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The first hearth (Fig. 1) was of sandstone; all after were of fire-brick (Fig. 2). The profile was no doubt derived directly from Gibbons's furnace,2 for it appears from W. Firmstone's note-books that in October, 1840, he visited " Gibbons' new furnaces building at Corbyn Hall," and I have an old drawing,

Jan 1, 1910

New York, March 18, 1913. MR. CHARLES F. RA ND, President, New YORK, MARCH American Institute of Mining Engineers. Dear Sir: In connection with the official notice of Dr. Raymond's unanimous election by the Directors as Secretary Emeritus, we wish to place upon record certain statements concerning his services to the Institute which we think have not been published., and may not be generally known to the majority of our fellow-members. When the Institute was formed in 1871, Dr. Raymond acted as Secretary of the Founders' Meeting, and became the first Vice-President of the Institute, and, by request of the aged and beloved David Thomas, who was the first President of the Institute, Dr. Raymond discharged all the duties of the office of President, to which he was later formally elected in 1872, and which lip held for three years. During that time, he visited Europe, and through his acquaintance and reputation abroad, established those international relations of the Institute which proved so important in later years. He also enlisted the support of the mining engineers and metallurgists of the Pacific Slope, who would not otherwise have been disposed to join a society originating in the East. And for twelve years he attended; at his own expense, nearly every meeting of the Institute, wherever held, giving to it without remuneration his best service, and sacrificing for it many professional and private interests.

Jan 4, 1913

By AIME AIME

THE annual meeting of the Auxiliary to the A. I. M. E. was marked by the most delightful cordiality and warm spirit of welcome on the part of the members of the New York Section and an equally charming spirit of cooperation and appreciation on the part of the visitors. On Monday Mrs. Ernest H. Wolfes and Mrs. Charles A. Bohn had charge of registration and most efficiently .provided everyone with the necessary tickets and badges. The reception hall and regisfration booth were gay with beautiful flowers that reflected the welcoming spirit one found there. The smooth efficiency with which the whole program ran was due largely to the tireless efforts of Mrs. Donald M. Liddell and Mrs. Louis D. Huntoon, joint chairmen of the Ladies' Committee, and Miss Margaret Callow, chairman of the Junior Committee. After registering, the ladies proceeded to- the fifth floor, where they had luncheon with the members of the A. I. M. E. On that day Mrs. W. H. Bassett and Mrs. Lucius W. Mayer were the hostesses.

Jan 1, 1929

By John D. Price

R. W. Campbell (Jones and Laughlin Steel Carp., Pittsburgh)—As usual John Price has presented an excellent paper. I know of no one who has devoted more time and conscientious thought to this subject than he has, and his efforts have produced scientific data and conclusions of real value. Results of similar studies made by the Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp. on the blending of Pennsylvania coals may be of interest. During 1935 the late F. W. Wagner and the present writer developed an empirical physical fuel value formula for evaluating the combined physical tests of metallurgical coke, see Table IV. In the development of the formula, the tumbler test, shatter test, screen test, and porosity of coke have been taken into consideration. Each of these tests brings out some physical property not expressed by the others, and in estimation of the importance of these tests as a medium for evaluating coke for the blast furnace, their worth has been graded as follows: It was thought that some additional penalty should be applied to cokes that do not show a uniform screen size, assuming that coke larger than 4 in. was not desirable and that this size was an indication of irregular size. Therefore the screen test factor is further corrected by applying a penalty of 1 pct for each 1 pct material greater than 4-in. size as shown by the screen test. The physical fitness of coke for blast furnace use depends upon four fundamental characteristics: l—gen-era1 strength, as indicated by the shatter test; 2— abradability, or the resistance of cell walls to reduction in size by attrition, as indicated by the tumbler test; 3—porosity; and 4—size and uniformity. Each of these characteristics is not of equal importance, but surely, in an attempt to determine an accurate physical value, the individual value of each should be taken into consideration. The formula is used as a yardstick, so to speak, in determining variations in the normal production of metallurgical coke and in making comparisons between normal coke and experimental blends with other coals. Table IV gives results of coking tests on raw and washed high volatile coals and these same coals with blends of coke breeze, anthracite coal, char and low volatile coals, all from Pennsylvania. The table also gives the source of the coals and coke breeze, as well as their proximate analyses. It will be noted that the washing of the raw high volatile coal increased the physical fuel value from 26.17 to 39.16, showing the effect of removing shale and slate which produces a detrimental fracturing and weakening of the coke. It is a well known fact that many Pennsylvania high volatile coals contain an excess of resinous material or binder which has a tendency to weaken the coke, owing to its high evolution of gases during carbonization. Tests were therefore made with coke breeze, an inert material, in an attempt to alleviate this condition. Blends of washed coal with 5 pct and 7.5 pct coke breeze collected from the coke plant quenching sump (82.9 pct through 1/8-in. screen) resulted in cokes with a physical fuel value of 20.75 and 16.73 respectively, lower than results obtained from 100 pct raw high volatile coal. It will be noted that the percentage of + 4-in. coke increased but that the tumbler test was very low. Undoubtedly better results could have been obtained if the coke breeze could have been crushed extremely fine. During World War II the government asked the coking industry to consider the use of anthracite coal as a substitute for high quality low volatile coal, which was extremely scarce at the time. The next series of tests was made with blends of raw and washed high volatile coals and 5, 10, and 15 pct Pennsylvania No. 5 buckwheat anthracite (100 pct through l/8-in. screen). It was necessary to use some raw high volatile coal in these blends because of insufficient washer capacity at the time. It will be noted that the physical fuel values

Jan 1, 1954

By C. H. Lieb

ONE astounding fact in the production of petroleum is the comparatively recent realization by producers that flowing production is the cheapest crude produced. About 1910 or even later, operators actually endeavored to get a producing well to pumping as quickly as possible after completion. A well was not really considered to be completed until it was operating on the pump. Remarkable progress has been made since then. It was not until about 1920 that producers began to take a serious interest in pressures and to think a little about proper methods of handling oil wells. Pressure gauges were installed, and records of pressures maintained, which was quite an innovation. Desultory experiments were made with tubing of different sizes, as well as experiments with placing the bottom of the tubing string at different levels in the well. Probably the first important departure from customary procedure was about 1926, during the Seminole development, when gas lift

Jan 1, 1936

By D. V. Carter, D. C. Williams

Four oil discoveries were made in east and east central Texas during 1940, three of which represented new fields. In the Chapel Hill field, Smith County, oil was found where formerly only gas and distillate were produced. The three oil fields discovered are: Hawkins, Wood County; Pittsburg, Camp County; and Tehuacana, Limestone County. Important extensions were made to the following fields: Bazette, Navarro County; Long Lake, Anderson and Leon Counties; Cayuga, Anderson, Freestone and Henderson Counties; Opelika, Henderson County; and Talco, Titus and Franklin Counties. At the close of the year 54 oil and gas fields were producing in the district. There were 13 other fields, 11 oil and 2 gas, which have been abandoned. The East Texas field led the district in the number of completions for the year. During the year about 622 wells (oil and distillate wells included) were completed and 80 wildcats were drilled. Production and Proration During the year 170,424,685 bbl. of oil (distillate production included) were produced in the district—a decrease of 2.6 per cent from the 175,053,729 bbl. (distillate production included) during the preceding year. The district's production for the year 1938 was 182,369,484 bhl. As usual, most of the district's annual production was in the East Texas field, which produced 139,095,694 bbl. (distillate production in- cluded) during 1940, or 81.6 per cent of the total oil produced as compared with 141,333,317 bbl. (80.7 per cent) for 1939. The December estimated daily average production in the district was 424,565 bbl. The district accounted for 34.9 per cent of the state's annual production, compared to 36.7 pcr cent of the state's 1939 production. The decrease in production for 1940 may be attributed to changes made in proration schedules. Any material changes in the district's annual production may be considered for the most part as a reflection of proration-schedule changes affecting the East Texas field, since it is by far the most important field in the area. The entire state was subject to 71 shutdown days for the year; the East Texas field to 131; and the Rodessa field (Cass County, Texas, portion) to 5 days. No important changes were made in field rules and regulations during the year regarding the allocation of oil in individual fields in this district. Discoveries The Hawkins field is in southeastern Wood County in and principally north of the town of Hawkins. Development to date indicates that the field is somewhat of an elongated anticline trending slightly east of north and the proved oil area appears at this time to cover approximately 4000 acres. The oil production has been secured from the Woodbine sand, Upper Cretaceous; a considerable quantity of gas has been encountered in the Sub-Clarksville formation (Eagleford shale) in the higher part of the structure. It appears that a free gas

Jan 1, 1941

By D. C. Williams, D. V. Carter

Four oil discoveries were made in east and east central Texas during 1940, three of which represented new fields. In the Chapel Hill field, Smith County, oil was found where formerly only gas and distillate were produced. The three oil fields discovered are: Hawkins, Wood County; Pittsburg, Camp County; and Tehuacana, Limestone County. Important extensions were made to the following fields: Bazette, Navarro County; Long Lake, Anderson and Leon Counties; Cayuga, Anderson, Freestone and Henderson Counties; Opelika, Henderson County; and Talco, Titus and Franklin Counties. At the close of the year 54 oil and gas fields were producing in the district. There were 13 other fields, 11 oil and 2 gas, which have been abandoned. The East Texas field led the district in the number of completions for the year. During the year about 622 wells (oil and distillate wells included) were completed and 80 wildcats were drilled. Production and Proration During the year 170,424,685 bbl. of oil (distillate production included) were produced in the district—a decrease of 2.6 per cent from the 175,053,729 bbl. (distillate production included) during the preceding year. The district's production for the year 1938 was 182,369,484 bhl. As usual, most of the district's annual production was in the East Texas field, which produced 139,095,694 bbl. (distillate production in- cluded) during 1940, or 81.6 per cent of the total oil produced as compared with 141,333,317 bbl. (80.7 per cent) for 1939. The December estimated daily average production in the district was 424,565 bbl. The district accounted for 34.9 per cent of the state's annual production, compared to 36.7 pcr cent of the state's 1939 production. The decrease in production for 1940 may be attributed to changes made in proration schedules. Any material changes in the district's annual production may be considered for the most part as a reflection of proration-schedule changes affecting the East Texas field, since it is by far the most important field in the area. The entire state was subject to 71 shutdown days for the year; the East Texas field to 131; and the Rodessa field (Cass County, Texas, portion) to 5 days. No important changes were made in field rules and regulations during the year regarding the allocation of oil in individual fields in this district. Discoveries The Hawkins field is in southeastern Wood County in and principally north of the town of Hawkins. Development to date indicates that the field is somewhat of an elongated anticline trending slightly east of north and the proved oil area appears at this time to cover approximately 4000 acres. The oil production has been secured from the Woodbine sand, Upper Cretaceous; a considerable quantity of gas has been encountered in the Sub-Clarksville formation (Eagleford shale) in the higher part of the structure. It appears that a free gas

Jan 1, 1941

By MARSHALL D. DRAPER

THERE are said to be about 150 operating companies in Kotchiu, most of these being small, corresponding in degree to lessees in western mines in the United States. Of the total number there are probably forty large companies having their own smelting plants equipped with one or two furnaces, slag crushing plant and other accessory equipment. A few plants, not more than ten, do custom smelting. There are in all about fifty smelting plants in Kotchiu. With little variation, the equipment and methods are the same. The plant usually consists of two furnaces, one being in operation while the other is being relined 01- re- paired. An adjoining house contains one or more of the large buffalo-drawn Chilean mills for crushing slag. A few houses for the working coolies, with more pretentious ones for the owners, complete the establishment, the whole being surrounded by a compound wall 8 ft. high.

Jan 1, 1931

By H. K. Najarian

AT Josephtown, Pa., on the south hank of the Ohio River about thirty miles northwest of Pittsburgh, is the Josephtown electrothermic zinc smelter, which operates as a custom smelter receiving both domestic and foreign concentrates. Constructed in 1930, the plant was designed to produce zinc oxide and to process 124 tons per day of zinc concentrate obtained mainly from the Company's New York State mines. Zinc condensing equipment was developed in conjunction with the St. Joe electrothermic. furnace and commercial production of zinc metal started in 1936. Expansion of the plant and equipment during 1939 and 1940 brought the processing. capacity to upwards of 300 tons of concentrate per day; and the plant operated at peak capacity during the war years, earning the Army-Navy "E" award and three subsequent stars. A postwar plant expansion is now under way, designed to increase the capacity to 500 tons per day of concentrate, with an estimated daily production of 160 tons of zinc metal of various grades, about 100 tons of zinc oxide, and 425 tons of sulphuric acid as major products.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. A. Retty

IN the Labrador iron fields two concessions, totaling nearly 24,000 square miles, have been staked out and commercial-grade deposits delineated. The Newfoundland-Labrador concession, owned by the Labrador Mining and Exploration Co. Ltd., is a 20,000-square-mile tract in the upper basins of the Hamilton and N askaupi Rivers which drain into Lake Melville. The New Quebec licensed area is 3900 square miles, owned by the Hollinger North Shore Exploration Co. Ltd., lying to the northwest of the northwestern part of the Labrador concession. It includes the upper basin of the Swampy Bay River and part of the upper basin of the Whale River, both of which drain into Ungava Bay. Both of the above-named companies are controlled by Hollinger Consolidated Gold Mines Ltd. with The M. A. Hanna Co., of Cleveland, holding a minority interest. When exploration was first undertaken in 1936, the only published map of the area was that prepared by A. P. Low in 1895. It showed only the main watercourses and gave only a rough, general idea of the geology. The numerous lakes of this vast area had to be first sketched and then mapped. Since then, extensive geological and topographical surveys have been conducted by the Labrador company, work which is normally done by Government branches. The object of the work was to examine the area and gradually eliminate unfavorable or less favorable prospecting ground. With this object in view, geological

Jan 1, 1948