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By L. Schernikau, W. H. Smith

Oil, coal, and gas account for approximately 80% of global primary energy, but only a portion of total airborne CO2 eq (approx. 35% at GWP20 to 65% at GWP100), even though they account for 95% of total measured CO2 emissions. The benefits of these energy sources, as well as their related costs, are not all incorporated in current energy policy discussions. Global greenhouse gas policies must include documented changes in measured airborne CO2 eq to avoid spending large amounts of public funds on ineffective or sub-optimal policies. The authors examined airborne CO2, which is less than half of emitted CO2, as well as reported CH4 emissions and the global warming potential of CH4 as published by the IPCC for coal and natural gas. The surprising conclusion is that surfaced-mined coal appears ‘better for the climate’ than the average natural gas, and all coal appears beneficial over LNG. Therefore, current CO2-only reduction policies and CO2 taxes are leading to unintended consequences and the switch from coal to natural gas, especially LNG, will not have the desired impact of reducing predicted future global warming; in fact, quite the contrary. A large portion of anthropogenic global warming is attributed by the IPCC and IEA to CH4, but it must be noted that CH4 emissions from natural sources and from agriculture account for approximately 40% and 25% of annual global CH4 emissions respectively. Energy accounts for about 20% of documented CH4 emissions. CO2 contributes only approximately 35% of annual airborne anthropogenic GHG emissions after accounting for CH4, over a 20-year horizon. At a 100-year horizon, the contribution of CO2 increases to approximately 60%. Energy policies that do not consider all GHG emissions along the entire value chain will lead to undesired economic and environmental distortions. All carbon taxation and CO2 pricing schemes are incorrect and need to be revised. At IPCC’s GWP20 an approximately 2%1 higher loss of CH4 across the value chain prior to combustion of natural gas versus coal will lead to ‘climate parity’ of coal with natural gas. According to public data, natural gas value chains have high CH4 and undocumented CO2 losses. On a global average, using only IEA-documented CH4 data, natural gas emits approximately 15% more CO2 eq than surface-mined coal, over a 20-year horizon. This difference will increase as the use of shale gas and LNG expands. Investors should support all energy systems in a manner that avoids an energy crisis, including intermittent renewable energy systems where they make sense. If CO2 emissions need to be reduced, one of the most effective ways would be to install ultra-supercritical power plants with CCUS technology. However, the undisputed benefits of increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere because of its promotion of photosynthesis and plant growth effects (fertilization) need to be considered in energy policy decisions as well. The authors suggest that future research and development should concentrate on reducing net emissions from fossil fuel power plants and providing cost-effective and reliable new conventional power generation capacity, utilizing clean coal and clean natural gas technology.

Mar 2, 2022

By S. J. Oosthuizen

This paper examines innovation in relation to the availability of anew material: the metal titanium. The paper aims to highlight the need for the inclusion of entrepreneurial innovation as a necessary focus area in the development of a titanium metal value chain. Both the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) have identified the creation of titanium metals production capabilities as a key growth area for South Africa. Using historical literature as a source of data, the activities of selected innovators who used titanium metal as a central component in their success, were investigated. The origin of the process innovation behind the titanium metals industry, and two titanium product innovations: namely, medical implants and sporting goods, were detailed as case studies. It was found that individual innovators were responsible for the creation, and rapid growth, of the titanium industry and titanium product applications. There is a need to link the current research and development into titanium metals production with individuals and organizations capable of commercializing innovative processes and products.

Jan 1, 2011

By T. Mapeta, S. M. Rupprecht

Discussions on reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction (RPEEE) include the CRIRSCO 2019 reporting template, JORC 2012, SAMREC 2016, CIM 2019 Guideline, and Regulation SK-1300. These reporting codes all conform to the principles of reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction. To demonstrate that all mineral resources align with the RPEEE principles, the Competent Person is responsible for endorsing the mineral resource estimate. Moreover, establishing mineral resources and RPEEE requires technical input from numerous technical specialists, such as mining and geotechnical engineers, metallurgical engineers, social and environmental specialists, financial and governmental practitioners, and more. The aim is to improve the transparency of the disclosure of mineral resources and guarantee the investor or potential investor that the reporting of mineral resources is based on reliable technical, economic, environmental, social, and other relevant factors. This paper discusses the important protocols and definitions in some international reporting codes for the purposes of developing a guide memoire that will assist the Competent Person to interpret, establish and apply RPEEE appropriately and easily.

Jun 27, 2025

By J. Maritz, K. de Beer, S. M. Buthelezi

The economic upheaval of COVID-19 forced companies to invest in emerging technologies to aid recovery. One such technology is extended reality, which is becoming a mature and innovative tool. Early adopters are seeing significant benefits in learning, training, immersive data visualization, and remote assistance. In South Africa, the mining industry is increasingly interested in using extended reality to optimize and innovate operations. The Minerals Council of South Africa's July 2021 report highlighted the potential of extended reality's to achieve zero-harm production and modernize the industry. However, the extent of extended reality adoption in mining remains unclear due to limited information on its usage. This study addressed this gap by distributing an online survey to assess awareness, knowledge, and current uses of extended reality in South Africa’s mining sector. The results indicated that virtual and augmented reality had the highest levels of awareness and usage, primarily for learning and training. Mixed reality, however, had the lowest awareness and knowledge levels. In terms of applications, visualization and remote assistance had the least use cases. These findings highlight that the South African mining industry is deficient in its understanding and use of extended reality technologies. Without better awareness and application, the South African industry risks missing out on the full benefits of extended reality. The study underlines the need for the South African mining industry to improve its outlook on extended reality technologies to fully leverage their potential applications and benefits.

Jul 10, 2024

By R. E. Robinson

I shall present a concept for the development of the resources of this country and its neighbours that repre¬sents a fantastic challenge to our scientists and entre¬preneurs. This concept offers prospects of development that must make our previous achievements seem equivalent only to the first act in a drama enacted on the stage of Southern Africa. I hope to illustrate how, in Act Two, chemistry will play a dominant role, and chemists and chemical engineers will be among the principal actors.

Jan 1, 1980

Using the philosophy that 'change cannot be introduced through memos-you have to get people emotionallyinvolved', SRK's Environmental Group in South Africa is helping clients communicate their environmental management objectives more effectively through the powerful medium of interactive industrial theatre. Existing and pending environmental legislation, international pressures, and growing awareness of the environment have led South African industry to the point where responsible care, for both the environment and the health and safety of those affected by the activities of an industry, is now a focus of management policies.

Jan 1, 1995

The visit which took place on the 18th February, 1972 was a departure in that the places visited had no direct connection with the work in which members of the Institute are normally engaged. It was refreshing and stimulating to see important and involved operations normally outside ones own trend of life and to have experts to speak about technical, financial and matters of general interest concerning their work, not forgetting their troubles and problems and how they overcame them. Carlton Centre The members of the Institute were received by Mr D. Appleton, Public Relations Officer of the Carlton Centre Limited, who introduced Mr L. R. M. Fee of W. Rhodes Harrison, Architect in charge of the project; Mr W. C. E. Skilton of Murray and Roberts, the Engineer in charge of the construction of the complex and Mr A. Home the Senior Operating Engineer of Carlton Centre Limited. Each of these gentlemen addressed the members giving short rundowns on the project with special reference to their particular sphere of the undertaking. A variety of particularly interesting statistics relating to the planning construction and the ultimate operation and maintenance of the complex was given. Mining engineers present had an opportunity to compare the problems encountered by them associated with depth to problems encountered by the civil engineer in the construction of a building rising to such an enormous height. To some of the members a sense of similarity of the labour problems encountered must have been recognised. After tea the visitors were divided into groups, each under the guidance of an official, and then visited the highest floor accessible and thereafter the 19th floor where the internal arrangements for airconditioning, lighting, plumbing, power supply and communication arrangements were explained. Thereafter a visit to one of the seven basements which houses all machinery required to serve this enormous complex enabled the visitors to see the standby power arrangements as well as the refrigeration plant. The visit finished in time to proceed to the Crest Hotel in Hillbrow for lunch. To our hosts for the visit to the Carlton Complex a special vote of thanks is recorded. Strydom Tower In the afternoon the party proceeded to the Strydom Tower where Mr Knight from the Public Works Department who was the Engineer in charge of the construction of the tower gave details on the construction and the extraordinary methods which had to be adopted to achieve the desired objectives and to overcome known as well as unforeseen difficulties. The comparatively short time taken to complete the project and the good safety record appeared to impress the visitors. The final phase of the visit was taken care of by Mr Bothma of Telecommunications Department of the Post Office, who gave an extremely interesting explanation of the telecommunication organization of the Post Office with particular reference to the part the Hillbrow Tower plays in the South African telecommunication system. Both gentlemen answered many questions willingly and interestingly. Following the explanatory talks the visitors were shown the technical equipment housed in the two top levels of the tower. Short explanatory talks gave members an insight into the workings of one of the most important aspects of modern life. Even to the amateur photographer opportunities existed to view and photograph the city from the highest available observation point. We are indebted to Mr Gouws, the Regional Director of the Post Office for granting permission to visit sections of the tower normally not accessible to the general public and to our hosts for the manner in which we were received and entertained on the explanation of the many interesting features of this important installation. In conclusion, the programme for the day can be classified as interesting, of exceptional educational value, and an opportunity to see something of the engineering skills put into two vast and ambitious undertakings and the results achieved.

By G. M. J. van Heerden, R. C. W. Webber-Youngman

"This article describes the re-engineering principles applied in the design of a personnel transportation system for the Bafokeng Rasimone Platinum Mine in the Rustenburg area of South Africa. It incorporates conveyor belt travelling, chairlift operation, and also includes consideration of proposed changes/modifications to the existing conveyor belt infrastructure.The purpose of the project was to identify, through a process of evaluation, the appropriate option and/or combination of transportation options that would be safe in terms of personnel transportation as well as cost-effective. Alternative measures for transporting personnel (not using belt riding) would have a significant positive spin-off, increasing the availability of the belt and thereby increasing production. This paper explores the feasibility of interventions that would improve safety through eliminating risk associated with personnel transportation as well as contributing towards improving the mine’s position on the cost curve.The design in consideration at the Bafokeng Rasimone Platinum Mine consists of two shaft systems, namely the North Shaft and South Shaft, each comprising twin decline shafts. One of the decline shafts is equipped with a conveyor belt for rock and personnel transportation, and the other with a winder for trackbound material transport. The conveyor belt has been used for personnel transportation since the commissioning of the shafts. The conveyor belt is equipped with platforms for personnel getting off and on the belt and a number of safety devices designed to ensure safety while travelling on the belt. Intensive training in the practical aspects of belt riding is given to every person, and unsupervised riding on the belt is permitted only once belt riding competence is demonstrated. Despite this, the safety results were poor, with 106 injuries between 2006 and May 2013. Fortunately, no fatalities were reported during this period.An investigation of alternative means for personnel transportation or engineered solutions to the current conveyor belt infrastructure in the safest, most effective, and most economical way was therefore needed. There was a major risk of safety-related stoppages being imposed following another belt accident/incident. This would prevent the mine from transporting personnel underground by belt and result in major production losses. From the commissioning of the Phase 2 shaft deepening project on both shafts, dedicated chairlifts have been used for personnel transportation as opposed to the conveyor belt installed in the Phase 1 area. The chairlifts have been in operation since 2004 and no chairlift-related incidents have been recorded thus far. According to safety statistics, it is clear that the chairlift is the safer method for the transportation of people in the shaft.To fulfil the objectives/scope of this study, it was recommended that both primary (new chairlift decline with infrastructure) and secondary options (modifications to the current conveyor belt infrastructure) be considered for implementation on both the North Shaft and South Shaft to reduce or eliminate accidents/incidents as a result of belt transportation. The associated capital expenditure would be approximately R200 million. Considering the future impact on the business as a whole, this would definitely be capital well spent."

Jan 1, 2016

On 8th August, 1973, 57 members of the Institute visited Prieska Copper Mine at Copperton in the North Western Cape. After tea, the group was welcomed by the Management of the Mine, and Mr Grobler, the General Manager, gave an introductory talk. After they had been taken on a bus tour of the property, the members split up into groups and proceeded underground or to the concentrator. Of special interest to the mining members were the rock-handling methods in use at the mine. The stoping method that has been adopted is the continuous, long-hole sub-level open stoping system. The broken ore is moved with rubbertyred front-end loaders from the stope drawpoints to the ore passes. On the main tramming levels, the ore is collected by electric locomotives and discharged into the main shaft system at the bottom. At the shaft ore-pass system, a gyratory crusher that can accept rocks up to 1 m in diameter has been installed. The crushed product (minus 150 mm in diameter) will then be hoisted by a Koepe winder, which has a rated capacity of 900 tons per hour. The mine is also served by a declined roadway from surface, which facilitates the movement of heavy equipment. The most striking aspect is the productivity that can be achieved by the use of a trackless-mining system. For the production of 230 000 tons per month, it is estimated that 6 stopers and 7 developers will be required. The total labour force will be approximately 2500-2000 Bantu, 200 Coloured, and 300 Europeans. Training of maintenance and operating personnel is of the utmost importance, and it was interesting to note the extent to which non-White labour is being used in these occupations. Lunch was served at the single quarters, after which the group proceeded to the airfield for the return trip to Johannesburg. On behalf of the visitors, Professor de V. Lambrechts thanked Mr Grobler and his staff for the most interesting morning and for their hospitality,

Jan 10, 1973

By M. C. Holton

South Africa has the world?s largest in situ deposits of platinum group metals, but economically exploitable resources are shrinking due to escalating costs and technical challenges. The South African National Research and Development Strategy comments that an increase in the knowledge intensity of the resource-based sectors is required to turn these resources to account. Highly trained human resources, continuous improvement, technological innovation, and smart acquisition of know-how will become the major differentiators in the global mining market. Mechanization and, ultimately, automation in mining have the potential to reverse the negative mining trend and resolve safety and other challenges. However, the adoption rate of mechanized mining in platinum (and hard-rock gold) has been slow for various reasons. Changing systems from conventional drill?and-blast to continuous mechanized mining is a big step-change endeavour. The problem of transformation is discussed, and the discipline of systems engineering is examined because of its successful application in aerospace and defence.

Jan 1, 2012

By A. Dienenthal

"The casthouse floor has always been one of the most dangerous working places on a blast furnace or a ferro-alloy/nonferrous furnace. Apart from working in an atmosphere including toxic gases, fumes, and dust, the workers have to perform hard and heavy manual work close to runners and ladles filled with hot liquid metal and slag.Before the invention and installation of tapping equipment the tap-holes were opened and closed manually. Opening was done by means of steel bars and sledgehammers, whereas the tap-hole was closed by repeatedly ramming small amounts of clay or refractory material into the tap-hole, again with the help of long, heavy bars. In addition, on blast furnaces the blast had to be stopped, since it was impossible to close the tap-hole properly against the blast furnace pressure. This stoppage of the blast resulted in regular losses of production. Around 1900 a major change in technology occurred. Samuel W. Vaughen, superintendent of the blast furnace department of the Cambria Iron company at Johnstown, Pennsylvania (USA), invented the first clay gun in 1895 (Wiley, 1896) (Figure 1)."

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Lane

The socio economic risks of mining in South Africa have been emerging for some time now, and have been brought into sharp relief by recent events in the platinum sector. The slow pace of social upliftment in the country has lead to widespread social unrest with consequent calls for different forms of resource nationalism. Fundamentally, the key stakeholders are not fully aligned, and are not engaging productively. This poses significant above-the-ground risk to mining companies. Measuring social impact, deploying inclusive solutions and engaging effectively with stakeholders are three ways in which mining companies can mitigate this risk.

Jan 1, 2012

By S. K. Murphy

A partial shaft pillar extraction project was embarked on at a mine in the West Wits mining region in South Africa. Prior to the extraction, a rock engineering assessment was conducted with the main objective being to establish which areas of the shaft pillar could be extracted without unduly affecting the stability of major infrastructure within the shaft pillar. Standard numerical modelling methods were used to conduct this assessment and several areas were identified for extraction. However, during the extraction process, it was found that the infrastructure was affected more than was originally predicted by linear elastic modelling. In addition to this, several large events resulted in far more large aftershocks than would normally be predicted. In order to gain an understanding of this phenomenon, seismic data was integrated with numerical modelling as follows: > The seismic data in the form of displacements was integrated in 3D space within the model to assess the effect of static stress changes associated with seismic activity > Data from large events was integrated onto specific structures, where displacements associated with large events were integrated onto the plane of structure in question. This paper describes the methodology and results obtained from each of the above processes and include insights into the mining process that were previously unfathomable using standard linear elastic numerical modelling. The way forward for this rock engineering assessment of partial shaft pillar extraction is also discussed.

Jan 1, 2012

By T. J. Otto, I. D. Ungerer, G. C. Lindeque, T. J. van Heerden

Anglo American Kumba Iron Ore (Kumba) continues to implement technologies focussed on improving safety and productivity; this forms part of the groups FutureSmart Mining initiative. The paper provides insights into the implementation of three technology solutions that improves the productivity of heavy mining equipment (HME). Enhancements to the short term mine planning (STMP) process, the effective use of a fleet management system (FMS) and the deployment of drones or Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) are discussed. The implementation of these and other technologies contributed to a 13% and 22% increase in the overall equipment efficiency (OEE) of the primary HME at Kumba’s Sishen and Kolomela mines respectively. Four key success factors (KSF) are highlighted namely that Kumba’s technology implementation drive is a key enabler to the company’s strategy, has a strong focus on value-add, is underpinned by a holistic and integrated implementation approach and is people-centric.

Sep 1, 2021

By S. Lohmeier, D. Gallhofer, B. G. Lottermoser

Reprocessing of historic gold tailings is a common activity in South Africa, while base metal tailings offer similar reprocessing potential. The historic base metal tailings of the Namib Pb–Zn mine (Erongo Region, Namibia) still contain valuable resources of Pb and Zn in carbonate-rich matter. Micro-analysis of primary ore minerals identifies some galena as argentiferous and sphalerite as the principal host of Cd. This study demonstrates that knowledge of primary ore mineralogy helps to reveal the hosts of valuable commodities (Ag, Cd) and that field-portable X-ray fluorescence tools allow precise and accurate determinations of major and minor elements like Zn and Cd in such carbonate-rich material. Although there are limitations to directly determine the contents of certain element (i.e., As, Sb, In), linear correlations allow prediction of the likely abundance of these elements. Providing that the inter-mineral and inter-element relations are understood and there is consistency in sampling and analytical methodology, portable X-ray fluorescence analysis is an effective method to evaluate the chemical characteristics of base metal tailings for a range of major and trace elements.

Sep 9, 2024

By A. Chryssoulis, D. Venter, R. Dunne

An often-overlooked parameter of flotation processing is the impact of surface chemistry. Flotation processing, being a heterogenous process is largely reliant upon the chemistry occurring at the interfaces between solid-liquid phases. Development of analytical techniques such as Auger electron spectroscopy, X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and low energy electron diffractions (LEEDS) has allowed for a dynamic view characterizing surface composition and structures. The advent of ‘static’ systems, capable of measuring ultra-thin layers on surfaces at low concentrations, was the next step in surface analytical developments. In general, it is the low concentrations and fragmentation patterns which limit the analysis of certain chemical species at plant concentration ranges. At present, analysis of inorganic and organic surface modifiers by time of flight mass spectrometers with a variety of ionization techniques has become a common analytical method to measure chemical species on the outermost surface of mineral particles. By studying the relationship between surface analysis results with metallurgical outcomes, the implications of the presence of surface species can be determined. The presence of flotation activators or depressants can be established using Laser Ionization Mass Spectrometry (LIMS) and Resonant Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) which are highly versatile surface sensitive analytical techniques. A case study applied to sphalerite flotation in the Neves Corvo Cu-Pb-Zn concentrator and the implication inorganic surface modifiers have is presented. By determining the relative concentrations of Cu, Pb, oxidation products, Ca and other surface species in floated and rejected mineral particles, rationale for improving recovery and selectivity is elucidated. Keywords: Cu-Pb-Zn Flotation, Process Mineralogy, Surface Chemistry, Flotation kinetics

Jan 1, 2020

1. Book reviews Geophysical and geochemical techniques for exploration of hydrocarbons and minerals, edited by M. Sittig. (Reviewer: J. Keenan) Separation procedures in inorganic analysis. A practical handbook, by Roland S. Young. Charles Griffin, 1980. £23.00. (Reviewer: R. Murray-Smith) 2. Historical reprints Theinin~rs dictionary, by William Hooson. £14. Discovery of subterraneal treasure, by Gabriel Plattes. £12. Fodinae Regales (The Mines Royal), by Sir John Pettus. 3. De Beers' booklets Amborite - a remarkable new cutting material, by De Beers Industrial Diamond Division (P.O. Box 916, Johannesburg 2000). Booklet, 14 pp., free of charge. Natural and synthetic micron powders, by De Becrs Industrial Diamond Division (P.O. Box 916, Johannesburg 2000). Leaflet, 5 pp., free of charge. 4. New books Nickel in the environment, edited by J. O. Nriagu. New York, Wiley, 1980.928 pp. $65. Underwater minerals, by D. S. Cronan. London, Academic Press, 1980. 364 pp. $57.50. Data conversion integrated circuits, edited by D. Dooley. New York, Wiley, 1980.298 pp. $26.95 (cloth), $17.50 (paper). 5. NIM reports Report 2057 A mineralogical study of the Rooibokkop- Boschhoek copper deposit in the Marble Hall area. Report 2069 A utomatic setting of the distance between sample and detector in gamma-ray spectroscopy. Report 2070 The prereduction of chromites from the UG-2 Reef. Report 2075 The optimization of some of the conditions for analysis by spark-source mass spectrometry. Report 2082 A survey of the literature on gravity separation.

Jan 1, 1981

By Jannie Maree, Dieks Theron, Ryneth Nengovhela, Patrick Hlabela

In extracting base metals from ore bodies, sulphide as well as oxide, the main environmental concern is sulphur, whether in the form of sulphurous gases or sulphate in liquid form. Generally sulphur is in over supply in developed countries mainly because of strict legislation to capture it. In developing countries on the other hand there is usually a shortage of sulphur because of less strict environmental legislation. Africa falls in this second category and the African continent imports substantial amounts of sulphur despite the fact that large quantities of sulphur is emitted by smelters, thermal power stations, coal mines, fertilizer manufacturers and others. Other than making acid from gaseous emissions, existing methods to capture sulphur from gaseous and liquid effluents are uneconomical and it ends up in the environment either as ammonium sulphate (from gaseous effluents) or as gypsum (from liquid effluents). The CSIR?s Environmentek and Pyroserv has developed a process whereby gaseous sulphur emissions and sulphates in liquid effluents can be economically captured and converted into elemental sulphur and metal carbonates. The elemental sulphur is of high purity as it is precipitated from a gas stream and is readily marketable. The metal carbonates (barium or calcium) can be recycled back to the process or marketed. The only harmful byproduct of the process is carbon dioxide. Should natural gas or methane be available the carbon dioxide could be reduced by about one third. Should solar, wind or hydro energy be available to generate hydrogen the carbon dioxide emissions would be zero. Employing this technology could make Africa independent of sulphur imports and furthermore reduce the impact of acid rain and seepage of sulfate from gypsum and other waste dumps into the environment.

Jan 1, 2005

By N. Madani, S. Abulkhair

In multivariate geostatistics, it is common to have different types of complexities between variables of interest. In this context, an inequality constraint is an example of complex bivariate relationships. Unfortunately, traditional co-kriging and co-simulation algorithms cannot reproduce this type of bivariate complexity, leading to the overestimation of disturbing elements. This paper proposes a new algorithm based on a hierarchical sequential Gaussian co-simulation framework, integrated with inverse transform sampling, to model inequality constraints between variables. First, the proposed methodology's validity was evaluated by applying it to a real case study from an iron deposit, with an inequality constraint between iron and aluminum oxide. Then the simulated results were compared with a conventional hierarchical co-simulation algorithm to investigate the effect of inverse transform sampling on the quality of the co-simulation. The results showed that the proposed algorithm can reproduce an inequality constraint between variables.

Sep 1, 2021

By S Sondashi, F. J. Chidley, W. A. Grobler

Some of the challenges facing the flotation of base metal sulphides are the opening of new and varying ore bodies as well as maintaining essential skills in plants. Flotation reagent research focuses not only on improving flotation grade and recovery, but also on producing reagents robust enough to cope with changes. A group of recently developed co-collectors, activators, depressants and frothers are described together with a summary of results measured on base metal sulphide ores.

Jan 1, 2005