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By A. Ochieng

Solids suspension influences the quality of mixing and energy requirement in a solid-liquid system, both of which determine the efficiency of industrial processes such as nickel precipitation. Nickel solids concentration distribution in a stirred tank was investigated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental methods. The concentration distribution of the nickel solids was compared with that of sand and glass. The laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) method was used to measure the velocity field for the liquid-only system and an optical technique was employed to determine the axial solids concentration distribution. Regions of in homogeneity in the tank were identified. It was found that, for a given solids loading, the solids concentration distribution depended on both particle size and particle size distribution. High solids loadings were investigated and a difference in the concentration distribution pattern was obtained with nickel, flint glass and sand particles. The CFD simulation results highlighted problems that could be associated with some conventional experimental methods of determining solids concentration distribution in a stirred tank. Keywords: nickel; CFD; simulation; mixing; solids suspension.

Jan 1, 2010

By Karl A. Higgins

In 1976, Prof. G. G. Meyerhof published a famous article in the Journal of Geotechnical Engineering titled ?Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations?. This article presents the authors opinions on calculating pile capacities in clays and sands, group capacities and pile settlement. A portion of the article presents correlations of shaft friction and end bearing to the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N-value. Subsurface exploration via the Standard Penetration Test is the most widely used exploration tool in the United States, so correlations of pile capacity to N-value are significant to the practice of geotechnical engineering. Meyerhof?s SPT-N correlations are relatively simple calculations compared to other pile capacity computation methods presented in the article or found in other text books (such as the a-method, b-method, Nordlund, Vesic, Meyerhof?s semi-empirical, others) and therefore are popular amongst practicing geotechnical engineers. At the time these correlations were published by Prof. Meyerhof, utilization of dynamic testing with the Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) was not widespread in geotechnical engineering practice. Prof. Meyerhof?s correlations appear to be based upon conventional static pile load testing of instrumented piles. Dynamic pile measurements to estimate a pile?s static capacity provides certain advantages over conventional static load testing, namely the determination of unit shaft friction values at discrete intervals along the pile, and the unit end bearing support value. The author has compiled a database of driven, displacement piles tested with dynamic methods (ref. ASTM D4945, Test Method for High-Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles). The data was collected between 2002-2010 and is comprised of displacement piles driven into coastal plain sediments in the mid-Atlantic states of Virginia, Maryland and the District of Columbia. In layered soils, dynamic testing in particularly helpful as it reveals the differences in unit shaft friction for varying soil types. One hundred ninety (190) piles are included in the database, with a corresponding 1,373 discrete shaft friction and 190 end (toe) bearing measurements. The pile type typically consisted of 12 and 14 inch square, prestressed, precast concrete piles; however, a significant number of piles were steel HP 12 or 14 inch sections. The database was sorted based upon soil type, and then correlations of shaft friction and end bearing were derived in the same or similar manner as Meyerhof?s original 1976 publication. The new correlations are compared to Meyerhof?s original values.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Stefanizzi

In the present paper, numerical simulations based on a finite/discrete element approach are used to study deformation and failure process during standard rock mechanics. FEM/DEM modeling has been used as available with the ELFEN code, which explicitly model the transition from continuum to discontinuum. The transition is simulated through a crack nucleation and propagation that obeys to the Griffith?s failure criterion. If the fracture criterion within the intact rock (represented by FEM) is met, a new crack (represented by DEM) is initiated. Remeshing allows the fracture process through the FEM mesh to be tracked and visualized, thus contact properties can be assigned to pre-existing fractures and newly generated fractures. In this study, compressive tests of rock samples are simulated. The applicability of ELFEN to properly and efficiently simulate typical laboratory rock mechanics tests, with reference to the rock fracture process, is described in detail. In addition, an indirect validation of the extensional strain criterion proposed by Stacey (1981) is given.

May 1, 2009

By Avery H. Reed

RECORD production of crude petroleum, lime, crushed marble, and talc highlighted the mineral industry of Alabama in 1963. Among the States, Alabama ranked second in the production of bauxite, third in the production of scrap mica and native asphalt, and fifth in iron ore. The mineral industry of Alabama was dominated by mining and processing coal and stone, the manufacture of cement, and the production of crude petroleum, which together comprised 86 percent of the total value of production, compared with 82 percent in 1962. The iron-ore industry continued to decline; in 1959 the value of iron ore produced was 12 percent of the total State production value; in 1960, 11 percent; in 1961, 10 percent; in 1962t 8 percent; and in 1963, 5 percent.

Jan 1, 1964

By Stephen C. Tadolini, Thomas M. Barczak, Peter (Yunqing) Zhang

A cooperative study was conducted with Emerald Coal Resources, L.P., an affiliate of Foundation Coal Corporation, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to evaluate the effectiveness of (partially) pre-driven longwall recovery rooms supported with pumpable roof supports. This paper evaluates the load transfer mechanics associated with the advancement of the longwall face into the pre-driven recovery room and the widening of the room to recover the longwall shields. The results show that the yielding of the panel fender produced uncontrollable convergence that caused yielding of the shields and stiff pumpable roof supports when the face was approximately 10 ft from the recovery room. The shields continued to yield until the face advanced into the recovery room. Convergence in the pre-driven recovery room typically reached 6-8 in once the pumpable supports yielded and shed load through a declining residual load capacity prior to being cut out by the longwall shearer. Roof deformations occurred beyond the 32-ft horizon with total deformation ranging from 2 to 4 in, indicating that standing support was necessary to help control the span as the longwall face advanced into the pre-driven recovery room. Stability improved as the pumpable supports were cut out, thereby reducing the span between the shields and the outby pillars. In the end, the shields were successfully recovered under stable ground conditions. However, a disconcerting discovery was the load shedding of the outby pillars as the recovery room was mined into. It is postulated that this may be due to the progression of the rear “abutment” moving toward the recovery room as the panel fender and standing support in the recovery room yield and shed load. This behavior was not expected with a relatively narrow room that is fully supported with standing support. If this mechanism is indeed occurring, the width of the room and performance of the standing support becomes even more critical. Premature failure of the support can lead to excessive convergence on the shield line that cannot be controlled even with modern shields, resulting in roof instabilities that can lead to catastrophic results.

By Lloyd W. Trevoy

Syncrude Canada Limited is presently studying commercial production of heavy minerals from plant tailings of the openpit A lhabasca tar sands operation. When tar sands are processed and upgraded to synthetic crude oil, heavy minerals can be removed f rom the extraction circuit and beneficiated to provide concentrates of zircon and titanium minerals. Calculated recovery rates indicate that crude oil production capabilities of 105,000 barrels per day would provide 26,000 tonnes of zircon and 114,000 tonnes of titanium minerals annually. The titanium minerals concentrate is a mixture of ilmenite, leucoxene and rutile; it could be used as recovered or upgraded to synthetic rutile. With the consrruction of further synthetic crude oil plants in Western Canada, a large reserve of heavy minerals will become available.

Jan 1, 1984

By Charles O'Connor, Ben Tisa

International Training Resources is a company consisting of personnel with extensive law enforcement and military special operations experience, The staff members are qualified to train and certify, assist and advise law enforcement officers and agencies, at any level, in critical incident policy, procedures and tactical resolutions. Successful critical incident resolution is comprised of many elements of professional skills and personnel. (Command staff, negotiators, snipers, tactical teams, uniform patrol, K-9, bomb squad, etc.) Recently, tactical teams have been developing the capability for the use of explosive methods for rapid entry into crisis locations. This document ‘will briefly describe the environment, operational issues and courses of action associated with developing a complete tactical breaching program for utilization by SWAT teams in response to operational conditions in critical incident situations. This topic is being presented to the I.S.E.E. evaluators under “Interesting Blasting Projects” and “Public Relations” categories. Tactical operations differ significantly from traditional industry practices and we appreciate the opportunity to show the industry other professional applications of explosive materials and techniques. Presently, of the few schools from which law enforcement officers can receive training with explosive breaching methods, International Training Resources is the only company currently teaching and certifying officers which has received total endorsement by the California Peace Officer’s Standards and Training Commission (P.O.S.T.) and the state blaster’s licensing commission. We have pioneered the combining of law enforcement needs and blasting industry technology to train tactical officers, nationwide, in the mission essential skills necessary for explosive breaching.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. R. Hoskins

This is the final report for Research Contract No. 00101300 (Min. 34) granted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines to the University of Idaho Mining Research Bureau. The research project is entitled "Development of Improved Ventilation Technology for Non-coal Mines and Other Underground Excavations.' The duration of the project was six calendar months, from 16 April to 16 October 1970. The budgeted cost was $34,867.00 of which $31,953.00 was to be furnished by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The sequence of reporting that follows is to state the objectives as contracted, outline the program of investigation, highlight briefly the important technological factors peculiar to vein-type metal mine ventilation, and describe the normal methods of control. This is followed by the results achieved by the survey, and an itemization of the observed deficiencies in current technology. There follows a section dealing with the adopted Federal Regulations.

Jan 1, 1970

By A. J. Partos

The figures and tables referred to herein are presented in the Proceedings; Volume I, Pages 309 through 316. The 61-story One Liberty Place, at 315 m., is the tallest building 1n Philadelphia and was in 1987 the ninth tallest building in the world. One Liberty Place is supported on drilled piers socketed in heterogeneous metamorphic rock. Design load distribution was 40% on the base and 60% by shaft resistance. Drilled Pier G-10 supporting a T13-A type outrigger column was instrumented. There 1s no uplift load on the exterior outrigger columns. This column supports a 53,850 kN compressive load which includes a 13,440 kN windload. Table 4 presents experimental parameters from straight line interpolation of Mohr failure envelopes for the Wissahickon schist. Lowest values of cohesion (12,200 kN/m2) and angle of internal friction (19°) are at a 50° - 59° angle of foliation. Figure 3 presents a typical pier supported by shaft resistance 1n decomposed (D) and coreable (C) rock and by end bearing (B).

Jan 1, 1991

By Susan Jacob

The heat of fusion of silver was measured using high temperature differential scanning calorimetry (HTDSC). Heating rate, sample mass, calibration standard and cover gas flow rate were varied to determine their impact on instrument accuracy and reproducibility. Good reproducibility was achieved in most of the runs. Accuracy was not satisfactory in most of the runs, though three runs gave results within 1.7%, 3.3% and 3.5% of the literature value, within the acceptable limits. A larger mass and higher heating rate tend to generate more accurate results.

Jan 1, 2006

By M. J. Lawrence

Independent natural resource Valuers are an essential link between miners and mineral explorers on the one hand and the finance industry on the other. Investors (and regulators) expect the mining and financial industries to be vigilant against the use of inappropriate methodology or use of illogical steps within the chosen valuation method. The Australian Corporations Law generally requires an Independent Expert Report to support mergers and takeovers (as well as for capital raising activities). The introduction of the VALMIN Code (1998) by The Australasian Institute of Mining as Metallurgy, has meant that such Reports, when prepared in compliance with it, are now much more comprehensible and reliable than before. This is because the key requirements of the Code are for transparency and materiality in the Technical Assessment and Valuation Reports prepared in connection with the transaction involved. Transparency is particularly important because it allows the reader to identify and understand the assumptions made to derive a value and to then form a view as to the reasonableness of the result. Even though many elements of resource asset valuation practice are undeniably subjective, there must be some basis of objective rationality to it. Where the reasoning is patently illogical or the inputs are chosen to achieve a particular result, the estimated value must be viewed as virtually worthless. Experience, qualifications, competence and repute are the hallmarks of a professional technical auditor and valuer.

Jan 1, 2000

By Parviz F. Rad

The Bureau of Mines used a linear cutting apparatus equipped with a 7-inch disk cutter to cut grooves in marble, limestone, granite, and quartzite under a normal force of 7,000 lb. The size distribution of the muck for various grooves was determined through sieve analysis. A statistical search showed that Weibull distribution describes the size distribution better than other available functions. Results indicate that fineness modulus, chip population, and dimension of the largest chip can be used as indicators of cutting efficiency. The results correlate with those obtained from the boring machines and other lab experiments. Application of the principles established through this work to the operation of boring machines is explained

Jan 1, 1974

The New Technology of Enrichment of a Fine Low-Grade Tungsten from Complex Multi-Metallic Ore

Sep 13, 2010

By R Stosch, D Lohberger, J Rodler, E Schnell and A Bassler, H Ramseier

In the last two decades three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations have become an important tool in engineering sciences. More recently, the safety requirements in underground railway stations have increased with regard to incidents. For this reason, existing underground stations (eg Munich, Strasbourg and Berlin) are being equipped with smoke extraction facilities to protect passengers from smoke and visibility impairment in the event of fire. In addition, designs of planned underground stations (eg Karlsruhe, Doha) also include these facilities.For the commissioning of ventilation engineering systems with complex structures, the functional testing of the whole technical installation are important, as are the acceptance tests of ventilation and equipment parts. This functional testing includes not only the technical inspection of the equipment but also the acceptance measurements of the capability of the equipment and the execution of hot- or cold-smoke tests to confirm the effectiveness of the ventilation system.Due to the fact that the overhead contact line and other sensitive installations were already installed in the tunnel roof at the time that smoke tests were proposed, hot-smoke tests with fire loads up to a maximum of 1 MW could only be executed. Therefore, the evidence of the attainability of the safety objective had to be provided computationally in this special case with a fire scenario of a heat release of 10 MW using CFD simulations.This paper presents the interplay between the results from acceptance testing and smoke tests and the use of 3D CFD simulation and virtual reality using the example of Allmend station, which was repositioned underground and is part of a new section of track from Lucerne railway station to Kriens in the Zentralbahn network. The steps of the verification and validation of the computer model are presented with the real tests and measurements.CITATION:Stosch, R, Ramseier, H, Lohberger, D, Rodler, J, Schnell, E and Bassler, A, 2014. Safety in underground railway stations – an example of the interplay between testing and 3D computational fluid dynamics simulation, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 103–112 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

The epithermal Au-Ag deposits of the Hauraki Goldfield have formed in the convergent plate margin setting of the Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ). The deposits form as siliceous lodes in the upper parts of geothermal systems associated with andesitic and rhyolitic volcanism. Two types of low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation are recognised in these volcanic terranes. Vein deposits within the rhyolitic terrane in the east and south of the CVZ (Whitianga Province) are typified by Chalcedonic Silica-Adularia-Illite type mineralisation. The veins are hosted by both rhyolite-dacite volcanic rocks and the underlying andesitic basement. The mineralisation formed by episodic violent decompressional boiling of deeply circulating meteoric water, with some magmatic fluid contribution; this boiling was associated with hydraulic fracturing and hydrothermal eruptions in geothermal systems where the piezometric surface of the deep geothermal reservoir lay near-surface. Such episodic boiling provides chalcedonic veining, banding and brecciation textures, adularia stability, bladed calcite, and extreme loss of H2S gas from the fluid to cause major gold deposition.   Crystalline Quartz-Illite-(Adularia-Kaolinite) type mineralisation is widespread in the andesitic terrane forming the northern and western portions of the CVZ (Kuaotunu Province). There is a spatial association with weak mineralisation of the high sulphidation (Vuggy Silica-Alunite-Kaolinite-Illite) epithermal type and porphyry eu-Au type. Crystalline Quartz mineralisation is probably formed by the mixing of shallow acidic groundwaters with the ascending deep geothermal fluid in geothermal systems beneath andesitic stratovolcanoes. The piezometric surface to the deep geothermal reservoir in these systems is likely to lie at considerable depth, with acidic gases rising from the geothermal reservoir condensing within the overlying vadose zone. The cooling effect, oxidation and pH decrease accompanying mixing apparently overcomes the dilution effect, and results in quartz deposition, illite (and locally kaolinite) alteration, and precipitation of gold. A high level of base-metal sulphide precipitation also enhances gold deposition. Violent boiling of the mixing fluids may occur at local structural dilation sites, producing high grade "bonanza" gold mineralisation.

Jan 1, 1991

By F. B. Samani, B. Stabel

The 1,000 MW Hydro Power Station Masjed-e-Soleiman (formerly called Godar-e-Landar) in Iran is under construction since 1992. The rock engineering aspects of the major underground structure, i.e. the powerhouse cavern shall be reported on in detail. The geotechnical investigations are described and results given. The results of several geotechnical analyses are presented. The designed and executed rock support is given. A description of the monitoring systems and typical measurement results obtained during and after excavation are presented. The lessons learnt during construction of the Stage-I powerhouse cavern were applied on the extension of the powerhouse cavern, which is to house an additional 1000 MW. Details regarding the unexpected behaviour of the Mudstones are given. Die 1000 MW Wasserkraftanlage Masjed-e-Soleiman (vormals Godar-e-Landar genannt) befindet sich seit 1992 in Bau. Dieser Artikel berichtet im Detail über die felsbaulichen Aspekte der Untertagebauwerke, insb. der Maschinenkaverne. Die geotechnischen Untersuchungen werden beschrieben und deren Ergebnisse wie die Ergebnisse verschiedener Berechnungen werden präsentiert. Die geplante und die ausgeführte Felssicherung wird angegeben. Die eingebauten Überwachungseinrichtungen werden beschrieben und typische Ergebnisse während des Aushubs und danach werden dargestellt. Die Erfahrungen beim Aushub der Kaverne der Stufe I wurden beim Entwurf der Kaverne der Erweiterungsstufe II, die weitere 1000 MW beherbergen wird, berücksichtigt. Details zum unerwarteten Verhalten des Schluff-/Tonsteins werden angegeben. La centrale hydroélectrique de Masjed-e-Soleiman (dénommée anciennement Godar-e-Landar), d’une puissance de 1.000 MW, est en construction depuis 1992. Un rapport détaillé sera présenté sur les aspects relatifs à la construction en enrochements de l’aménagement souterrain principal, à savoir la caverne abritant la salle des machines. Une description des investigations géotechniques réalisées y est fournie ainsi que les résultats correspondants. En outre sont présentés les résultats de plusieurs analyses géotechniques. L’ancrage dans la roche tel que projeté et réalisé est présenté. Une description des systèmes de contrôle ainsi que les résultats de mesures typiques obtenus au cours des travaux d’excavation sont donnés. Les leçons tirées lors de la construction de la Phase 1 de la caverne de la salle des machines furent appliquées à l’extension de la caverne de la salle des machines, qui doit abriter une unité supplémentaire d’une puissance de 1.000 MW. Par ailleurs, des détails sont donnés sur le comportement inattendu des argilites.

Jan 1, 2003

By C. J. Cutler

Metallurgical accounting for toll treatment smelters pose a number of challenges. Multiple feed stockpiles have to be accounted for as part of the monthly recovery estimation. Moreover, multiple metallurgical intermediates make up part of the in-process inventory, which also influence the monthly recovery calculation. Errors propagate from the measurements of volumes, assays, moisture fractions and bulk densities in the various material types through multiple steps up to the point where the final recovery is calculated. These errors contribute non-linearly to the variance in the final recovery estimate. This paper develops the mathematical formulation for variance propagation in toll smelting operations, including the effect of in-process inventory, assuming measurement biases have been eliminated beforehand. Operational data from a Southern African copper smelter is used for a case study. The method of propagation of variance showed that uncertainties in stockpile assays were the main contributors to variance in the recovery estimate. Variance in the volume and bulk density uncertainties contributed a secondary, yet significant, proportion to the overall recovery variance. It was determined, for the given case study, that the recovery variance depended on the calculation method used and that variance propagation via the two-product formula was smaller than recovery variances calculated via the standard recovery formula. However, the probability that the two product formula will give inaccurate (versus imprecise) results is significantly more due to the practical difficulty of equiprobable sampling of tailings streams from smelter plants (which includes materials such as slags and flue dust). Recommendations are made on how to achieve a reduction in overall uncertainty for toll treatment smelters. Keywords: metallurgical accounting, copper smelters, pyrometallurgy, variance propagation, errors, precision, sampling

Jan 1, 2006

By Trevor L. L. Orr

"AbstractThe background to the harmonization of geotechnical standards that has taken place in recent years in Europe has been the move to more economic and political integration following World War II that has led to the formation of the European Union. Prior to 2010 the standards used in the European countries for geotechnical design, investigation and testing and for the carrying out geotechnical work, such as the installation of piles, were the different national standards, which were not harmonized. The harmonization of geotechnical standards in Europe started in 1981 with work on a model Eurocode 7 for geotechnical design that led eventually to publication by CEN, the European Committee for Standardization, of the European Standard version of Eurocode 7 in 2004. In parallel with the work on Eurocode 7, a large number of associated harmonized standards have been, and are being, prepared by CEN and by the International Standards Organization (ISO) for geotechnical investigation and testing and for the execution of geotechnical works. Standards published by CEN must be adopted by the CEN member countries and all conflicting standards withdrawn. Hence all the CEN countries have adopted the same the harmonized text of Eurocode 7, but with National Annexes that allow national choice with regard to Design Approach and partial factor values. The adoption of Eurocode 7 and its associated geotechnical standards has removed the barriers to geotechnical activity in Europe due to the presence of different national standards. It has also enhanced the ability of EU firms to compete in the global market.Background to harmonization of geotechnical standards in EuropeThe initial moves towards the harmonization of geotechnical standards in Europe can be related to the economic and political developments that took place in the period immediately following World War II to revive the economies of Western Europe. Europe at that time was divided by a political and, in many places, a physical barrier, known as the Iron Curtain, into two very different and separate zones: communist in the east and non-communist in the west. In 1952 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed, linking 6 countries: Belgium, West Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, and establishing a common market in coal and steel. The ECSC was the first international organization to be established on the basis of supranational principles whereby negotiated power is delegated to an authority by the governments of the member states. In 1957 the ECSC became the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world, with the aim to bring about economic integration. With the addition of Denmark, Ireland and the UK in 1973 and Greece in 1981, followed by Portugal and Spain in 1986, this led to the formation of the European Union (EU) in 1993. East and West Germany were reunified in 1990, following the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. In 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU, and since then the numbers of countries in the EU has increased to 28, many of which are countries that were formerly behind the Iron Curtain."

Jan 1, 2014

By Jerry Luttman, Mark Dubay, Anvesha Dogra, Elizabeth Dwyre, Wei Hu

The I-75 Modernization Project (Segment 3) just north of Detroit, MI is being delivered as a Design-Build-Finance-Maintain (DBFM), which is a Public Private Partnership (P3). The project includes design and reconstruction of 5.5 miles of freeway, including a depressed section with a 20,630-ft long, 14.5-ft inside diameter, up to 100-ft deep stormwater tunnel, multiple drop shafts, and a pump station. The project also includes a maintenance term of 25-years. This is the first time MDOT has used a P3 delivery method for a major highway and tunnel project. This paper describes the development of the P3 documents, including performance-based tunnel and shaft technical requirements, and the approach to project risk management, financing, and insurance coverage.

Jun 23, 2024

By C. Birch

"A mineral resource royalty is payment to the holder of mineral rights for the utilization of the mineral resource. In South Africa, this payment is made to the State as holder of the mineral rights (The Mineral and Petroleum Resources Royalty Act of 2008). The principle purpose of this research paper is to identify if the State is benefitting from the mineral resource royalty by considering its impact on seven individual Witwatersrand gold mines.For this study, a simple financial optimiser model was created in Microsoft Excel that links the ore flow, block listing and the cash flow (excluding or including the cost of the mineral resource royalty). Mixed integer linear programing (the Excel Solver function) is utilised to optimise either profit or NPV (at 9% and 12%) by adjusting the cut-off grade.The impact on each of the seven mines mine was different but overall R7.9 billion is estimated to be paid in mineral resource royalty over their expected remaining lives. Due to the cost of the mineral resource royalty and increasing the cut-off grades, the total revenue decreases by R10 billion. A significant portion of this lost revenue would have been paid to the State in the forms of other taxation including company income tax which decreases by R2.8 billion. It is recommended that an industry wide investigation be conducted to determine if the resource royalty is adding to the State’s revenue, or destroying value including premature job losses. IntroductionTaxation of mining companies has become a very topical subject in the context of the postapartheid South African economy. There have been increasing calls for equitable re-distribution of mineral asset wealth for the benefit of all South African citizens and not just to an elite few. As part of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MRDPA) of 2002, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Royalty Act of 2008 was introduced and came into effect in 2010 (South African Revenue Services, 2008). A mineral royalty is payment to the holder of mineral rights for the utilization of the mineral resource. In the case where the holder of the mineral right is the State, then this payment is made to the State (Cawood, 1999). Studies on the potential impact of the mineral resource royalty on the minerals industry have been conducted during the formulation of the Act and subesquently. These include Cawood and Macfarlane (2003), who suggested a cap of no more than 3% (Cawood and Macfarlane, 2003), as well as Cawood (2011), who predicted rising cut-off grades and thus reducing mineral reserves. In 2013, Grobler completed a Masters in the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences at the University of Pretoria and concluded that the impact of the mineral resource royalty on the economy is positive. She stated that the royalty has caused operating expenses to increase, but this does not appear to be significant. Furthermore, she stated that the royalty has not affected the way the mining industry operates (Grobler, 2014)."

Jan 1, 2016