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By Karl-H. Daum

Over many decades, numerous feasibility studies have demonstrated, that the production of sulphuric acid remains the most viable option of sulphur recovery from smelter off gas and abatement of SO2 emissions to the atmosphere. This is particularly more pronounced as smaller but more concentrated off-gas flows are to be treated from smelters, and enhanced sulphuric acid processes be-come available. Off-gas handling systems represent a significant capital and operating cost burden to the metallurgical operation. Modern pyrometallurgical smelter processes for sulphide ores based on the use of oxygen-enriched air, produce relatively small off-gas flows with high SO2 concentrations in the smelter gas of 30?60 %-vol. of SO2. This is a prerequisite for substantial cost reductions in the smelter off-gas handling and treatment system. As an alternative to sulphuric acid production, numerous scrubbing concepts with alkali or dual-alkali combinations as well as organic absorbents have been proposed. Also the reduction of the SO2 to elemental sulphur has frequently been studied. Very few of those alternative processes have been built in industrial scale, but all were generally characterized by none sustainable operation due to cost reasons, problems with issues related to chemicals used and by-products or poor availability. Thus the traditional concept of converting the SO2 to sulphuric acid is most common, although regarded as un-economic, but is at least a proven, environmentally sustainable and reliable way of sulphur gas processing. With the high acid price levels these days, operating companies are even able to generate significant revenue with their otherwise ?fatal? acid. Even though smelter gas is available at high SO2 concentrations, in a conventional acid plant one would add large amounts of air to dilute the gas down to a suitable concentration of 12?13 (14) %-vol. SO2. Dealing with higher SO2 concentrations in smelter acid plants is not feasible, as the gas exit temperature of the catalytic oxidation step would exceed the allowable limit for the catalyst. Hence those conventional acid plants are characterised by the use of large equipment, i.e. high capital cost, high energy consumption and limited flexibility. The newly developed LUREC® process can handle off-gas with significantly higher gas concentrations, even in excess of 25 %-vol. SO2. It is entirely based on well-proven equipment and unit operations. The first industrial application, operating with 16?18 %-vol. SO2 will be presented in this paper, along with the fundamentals of the process. It will be demonstrated that the process requires inherently lower capital cost, fewer operating cost, offers better energy recovery and lower emissions as compared to conventional design. While most existing smelter acid plants would have some built-in spare capacity, any significant increase of smelter capacity, say of 30%, can basically not be accommodated without installing an additional parallel new acid plant unit. An add-on LUREC® module can remove any such restriction, while simultaneously de-bottlenecking the existing acid plant. The paper also discusses the present status of the add-on technology for smelter acid plant expansions with respect to technical boundary conditions of different process alternatives as well as economic and environmental aspects. Application of the LUREC® process to modern smelter acid plants operating with high SO2 gas concentration, will lead to a substantial reduction of the specific size of the gas processing equipment and equivalent savings in capital and operating cost. The LUREC® process is patented worldwide by OUTOTEC.

Jan 1, 2009

By R. S. J. Toit

Discussion: T. L. Gibbs,* (Honorary Vice-President and Fellow): In terms of the Pneumoconiosis Compensation Act of 1962, a Pneumoconiosis Risk Committee was established whose function it is to estimate (by whatever means the committee deems fit) in respect of every controlled mine the pneumoconiosis risk to which persons employed in a dusty atmosphere at that mine are exposed. In estimating such risk the committee may estimate different risks in respect of individual mines or parts of mines or classes or groups of mines or occupations or localities at mines. The pneumoconiosis risk may be reviewed and re-estimated at any time. The Act provides further that the General Council for Pneumoconiosis Compensation shall apportion the levy imposed on owners of controlled mines on the basis of the pneumoconiosis risk determined by the risk committee and the numbers of persons employed in a dusty atmosphere. The task of the risk committee is a most responsible one and also a very difficult and complex one in view of the many different types of mines, rock formations, dust conditions, etc. Quite obviously, comparisons between mines cannot be made on dust concentrations alone as different mineral dusts have different toxicity or pneumoconiosis response factors. However, with its present knowledge, the risk committee is satisfied that the risk at mines, other than coal mines, is related to the mean quartz-equivalent dust concentration to which persons are exposed and the estimation of risks is based on this relationship. From the above, it will be clear that the work done by Dr du Toit on the problem of basing the current rate of levies to provide for pneumoconiosis compensation on the current dust hazard at mines has been of immense value to the risk committee. Up to now the risk committee has not been able to obtain complete and accurate information on the dust exposure of persons at all mines - and, in fact, it is doubtful whether it will be economic or practicable to obtain this in the foreseeable future - but reasonable assessments have been possible from routine dust sampling in some cases and from periodic comprehensive dust surveys in others. As a temporary measure the risks of some mines were estimated initially on a group basis relating to average dust conditions and the type of rock and mineral mined, but as more information became available, differentiation between individual mines became possible. It is the aim of the risk committee to eventually apply such a differentiation in all cases and to ensure that within the bounds of practicability each mine pays for its risk and for its risk only. In this connection, the relationship between the levies and the amounts actually paid out in compensation are examined regularly. In conclusion, I wish to add my congratulations to the author on his excellent paper. His findings will assist materially in the just administration of that very important piece of beneficial legislation, the Pneumoconiosis Compensation Act. G. K. Sluis Cremer MD (Visitor): Dr du Toit has made a valiant attempt to relate dust hazard and the rate of collecting funds for the purpose of paying compensation for Pneumoconiosis. In doing so he has had to make a number of assumptious, some of which touch on the medical aspects of pneumoconiosis. It is worth discussing whether these assumptions are justifiable. Pneumoconiosis is defined in our Pneumoconiosis Act as permanent disease of the cardio-respiratory organs which is caused by the inhalation of mineral dust. To a non-medical person this definition has probably a clear cut meaning. The doctors however have to deal with such conditions as silicosis and asbestosis where there is a well defined dose response relationship to the inhalation of quartz and asbestos respectively and on the other hand chronic bronchitis where the relationship to dust inhalation is poorly defined and where certainly no clear dose response relationship has emerged after many investigations in this country and overseas. Nevertheless since 1953 about half of our certifications for Pneumoconiosis are on the grounds of chronic bronchitis i.e. the X-rays show no evidence of silicosis, asbestosis or other relevant disease. This fact must affect Dr du Toit's computations. The next assumption we should examine is the manner in which toxicity factors have been allocated to the various mineral species. These allocations have in part been based on a restricted number of animal experiments carried out overseas but mostly in South Africa by Webster at the Pneumoconiosis Research Unit. To extrapolate the findings in a relatively small number of animal experiments to the expected reactious in man is a notoriously dangerous exercise. Furthermore the bracketing together of all silicates (except asbestos) and the insoluble metal oxides is entirely unacceptable. Talc (a hydrated silicate of magnesium) and muscovite mica (a silicate of aluminium and potassium) cause pneumoconiosis in their own right. On the other hand

Jan 3, 1970

By G. D. Rosales, P. F. A. Braga, S. C. A. França, C. P. Pinto

The growing market demand for lithium is mainly due to its use in the manufacture of batteries for electric or hybrid vehicles and portable equipment (smartphones, tablets, power tools, notebooks, etc.). Currently there is great interest in finding new sources of lithium and technologies for its utilisation. Li-S batteries have received attention due to their theoretically high specific energy density, which is 3 to 5 times greater than that of Li-ion batteries. Unlike Li-ion batteries, of which the main raw materials are lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide, the main raw material for Li-S batteries is lithium chloride. The anode used in Li-S batteries is metallic lithium, produced by a molten lithium chloride electrolysis process. The extraction of lithium from pegmatites such as spodumene, previously abandoned in the 1990s for being uneconomical, has become attractive due to the increase in prices as well as the need for greater lithium purity of products made from lithium-bearing minerals. The main methods used for lithium recovery from spodumene ore include the sulfuric acid process, the alkaline process (lime or limestone as raw material) and the chlorination roasting process. Thermodynamic modelling using HSC software 5.1 was conducted to predict different reactions that could occur during chlorination roasting of the spodumene/MgCl2+CaCl2 system. Lithium extraction from the solid obtained after the chlorination roasting was also investigated. The results of thermodynamic analysis provided a better understanding of the chlorination roasting process for lithium extraction. Metallurgical tests with a mass ratio of 1:6 (spodumene:chlorides) and molar ratio of 2:1 (MgCl2:CaCl2) allowed over 95% recovery of the lithium contained in the spodumene concentrate. Keywords: Spodumene, lithium chloride, chlorination roasting

Jan 1, 2020

By N. Mangesana

The effect of high solids concentration and coarse particle sizes (d50 ranges 90?300 µm) on the viscosity of a suspension of water and silica sand was investigated. The experiments were designed to include conditions that have been tested by other authors and those encountered in the operation of tumbling mills. The rheological data was measured using a tube rheometer with operating pseudo shear rates of up to 1500 s-1. The rheograms obtained depicted dilatant behaviour. The Otswald-de Waele, Bingham, Herschel-Buckley and Casson models were fitted to the experimental data. The Herschel-Buckely model, which approximates the yield point and gives an indication of the shear thinning or shear thickening behaviour of the suspension, was found to provide the best description of the flow curves for all slurries. The Herschel-Buckely model was then used to determine the apparent viscosity of all the tests. The apparent viscosity and yield stress increased with solids concentration and particle size at the different pseudo shear rates. The increase in slurry viscosity with solids concentration was attributed to increased frequency of particle-particle interactions. The increase in slurry viscosity with particle size was attributed to increased inertial effects. At low shear rates the sand slurry exhibited shear thinning behaviour for all solids concentrations. At higher shear rates above 1000 s-1the high solids concentration suspensions exhibited a transition from shear thinning to a shear thickening behaviour.

Jan 1, 2008

By Axel Schulze

HUGO PETERSEN has developed from the traditional firm of the same name that was established in 1906 in Berlin and is an engineering company specialising in general plant engineering now based in Wiesbaden. HUGO PETERSEN has many years wide-ranging experience in process plant engineering, primarily in the field of Sulphuric Acid Processes and Gas Cleaning. Together with its main shareholder, Chemieanlagenbau Chemnitz GmbH (CAC), a company with over 40 years experience in the international plant engineering business, HUGO PETERSEN implements turnkey new plants from initial consultancy right through to commissioning. In addition, HUGO PETERSEN can offer its clients improvements and revamps of existing plant systems. Initial consulting, planning and implementation take place within the context of a lean company organisation with experienced engineers and specialists. In all respects, many years of experience guarantee expertise over a wide range of possible applications For clients from the chemicals and metallurgical industries, as well as those in metals processing, HUGO PETERSEN GmbH?s breadth of experience means not just an efficient introduction to new methods and processes, but also their full implementation. In addition, along with design and construction for individual components, the company?s range of services also covers supply of complete plants, as well as modernisation projects and revamps in line with local conditions and existing quality requirements With own technologies and patents in the field of gas cleaning and sulphuric acid, supplemented by licences and cooperation projects, HUGO PETERSEN ensures expertise over a wide range of applications. With specialists and expert knowledge in these fields of application, HUGO PETERSEN is your partner of choice, supporting you and bringing your acid, and project to a successful conclusion.

Jan 1, 2009

The successful commissioning of the Cerro Verde project in Peru at the end of 2006 marked the culmination of the efforts of many in the industry over many years to have high pressure grinding roll technology recognized and accepted as a legitimate alternative to the conventional approach to large-scale hard rock comminution circuit design. Other hard-rock projects that have recently adopted HPGR include Freeport (Indonesia), Boddington (Australia) and Amplats Potgietersrus (South Africa). With the increasing acceptance of this technology, the need for technical presentations and articles exhorting the industry to adapt has diminished somewhat, and it is considered appropriate now to shift the emphasis to the provision of information for those considering embracing change. This article endeavours to answer frequently asked questions on the subject of high pressure grinding roll technology, with particular reference to its application in the hard rock minerals processing sector.

Jan 1, 2010

By L. Thomson

"The smelter at Sudbury Integrated Nickel Operations, located in Sudbury, Ontario, operates a single electric AC furnace. This furnace treats nickel sulphide concentrates produced by Glencore and third-party feeds and as such its performance is key to the company’s nickel supply chain. Currently the plant has two shutdowns per year in order to carry out significant repairs on matte tap-holes.Improved monitoring systems that enable better prediction of tap-hole wear have been a continued focus. The electric furnace is an essential piece of the smelter flow sheet requiring the need for planned tap-hole maintenance along with robust systems for management according to to this plan.The ability to meet our goal of zero harm is ensuring that safe practices are in place. Detailed procedures and cool-down practices have been implemented to ensure that required matte chemistry and temperature criteria can be met during the period leading into a shutdown for tapblock maintenance.A significant repair of the electric furnace will take place in 2015. During this rebuild, the sidewalls and matte endwall will be replaced. There is work underway to improve wall and matte end performance in an attempt to extend the time between rebuilds. This paper will review the approach taken towards this end."

Jan 1, 2014

By E. Dadzie

This paper will review some methods used to manage geotechnical risk at Damang Pit Cutback. The pit depth is designed up to 250m with push back on the eastern and western walls of the existed and depleted Railway Cutback (RCB) pit. The geotechnical design was presented by SRK Perth, focussing on the optimisation of the bench face angle which finally evolved with ?steep slope strategy?; 24m at 800 and 24m at 750 on the eastern and western walls respectively. The east wall was designed strategically to optimise the proximity of the tailings dam to the final pit crest of the push back. The pit has experienced failure in the weathered profile transgressing through the transitional material into the fresh rock at different location of the east wall since development in July 2005. To ensure stability and to minimise ore loss, the east wall has been redesigned using 700 batter angles and reduced berm width of 4m compared to 800 and 8.5 berm width of 24m bench height. The paper will also discuss how slope failures to the east wall had been sustained, managed and monitored to enhance production. Emphasis is placed on slope management at Damang which includes the principles of wall control blast, visual inspection, slope depressurisation and the state-of-the art of slope monitoring using Autoslope automated prism monitoring. Future slope monitoring is considering the use of 3D Laser and Radar to provide early warning so that evacuation could be effected. The intension is to provide mine personnel the means to identify risk areas during mining activities.

Jan 1, 2008

By Y. -L. Chiang

Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of BSc (Eng) (Chemical) The generation and control of manganese sulphide particle size distribution using various mixing configurations were investigated. Specifically, this paper discusses how varying mixing intensities on a macro and micro scale affect the resultant manganese sulphide particle size distribution (PSD) at a constant concentration. The mixing variations were achieved using various Y- and T-mixers as premixing devices into a jacketed, agitated vessel. The reagents used to generate the seeds were aqueous manganese sulphate and sodium sulphide solutions. The results showed that the absence of micromixing resulted in very poor control of the particle size distribution, the particle size and the number of particles produced. This was due to the fact that the macromixing time is much greater than the corresponding precipitation time, resulting in different mixing regions existing within the reactor. From the micromixing experiments, the T?mixer was found to be the most effective mixing device at lower concentrations due to the T-mixer providing a faster mixing time than the other mixing configurations, thereby effectively localizing the supersaturation and hence controlling the precipitation. The results obtained from the direct addition without the extension pipe (i.e. short mixing time) indicated a general increase in mean particle size and decrease in total particle number at reagent concentration of 0.007 mol.dm-3as compared to the corresponding micromixing experiments. The phenomenon may be due to incomplete crystallization at the immediate exit of the mixing device. Further experiments need to be conducted before any conclusions can be drawn about the precipitation mechanisms.

Jan 1, 2007

By A. D. Pienaar

The aqueous chemistry of niobium and tantalum compounds with hydrofluoric acid is a mature field of investigation. In contrast, very little attention has been paid to reactions of these compounds in non-aqueous environments. Similarly, reactions of elemental fluorine with niobium and tantalum compounds have received little more than cursory attention in literature. This work discusses the isothermal reaction kinetics derived from thermogravimetry, using a less redundant approach than is currently the standard. We also discuss the most likely kinetic models for this reaction.

Jan 1, 2012

Geological mapping makes an important contribution to orebody knowledge during the evaluation of structurally controlled gold veins. Orebody knowledge comprises an understanding of mineralization characteristics relevant to evaluation, mining, processing and environmental issues and allows project expectations to be realistically set. Structural interpretation to define continuity and mineralization controls is a key part of geological risk reduction and the reporting mineral resources using the JORC and other codes. The Dolgellau gold belt is a small British field that produced an estimated 150 000 oz from narrow quartz veins. Historical records, recent exploration and production data, published material, and accessible surface and underground exposure provide a valuable case study. Previous mapping has shown the general geometry of vein systems, but tends to accentuate gross geological continuity. Recent work has attempted to determine internal vein architecture and examine the significance of the historical views of ore shoot controls. The work resulted in the definition of vein continuity scenarios for the gold belt and evaluation expectations associated with each. This has, in turn, led to a realistic view of what can be achieved from an evaluation and project development perspective.

Jan 1, 2009

By D. C. Krige

The estimation of the tonnage and grade of payable ore in a mine and the correct policy of selective mining based on such estimates, is of vital importance to the mining engineer it is surprising, therefore, that more attention has not been devoted on the Witwatersrand to the scientific improvement of mine valuation methods. At present these methods consist almost entirely of the application of simple arithmetic and empirical formulae guided by practical experience, and ignore the many advantages to be gained from a careful statistical analysis of the behaviour of the gold values. The science of statistics has expanded rapidly during the last two decades and its value as a powerful and indispensable tool is now recognized not only by research workers and scientists but also, ever-increasingly, by the commercial and industrial world. This being the case it is noteworthy that in a mining field such as the Rand with its highly developed and advanced mining methods, singularly little attention has been paid to the analysis of mine valuation problems on a modern statistical basis. This omission is even more striking when cognizance is taken of the wealth of sampling data concerning the gold ore which is available and of the far-reaching decisions and deductions constantly being based on such data. Some contributions have however been made from time to time towards the application of statistics to mine valuation on the Rand (References Nos. 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12), but none of these have been generally applied in practice and a systematic practical approach based on clearly deemed fundamental concepts still appears to be lacking. The object of this paper is, therefore, to define these statistical concepts and to indicate briefly the lines along which statistical methods can be applied profitability in solving some of the existing problems and in improving the general standard of mine valuation on the Rand For this purpose a knowledge of mathematical statistics is essential, but as this paper is primarily intended to provide the mine valuator with a practical introduction to statistical application in his field, the mathematics is confined to a short annexure, together with references from which details can be obtained.

Jan 1, 1994

By A. L. Edwards

A retrospective study was conducted on the Rand Mutual Assurance (RMA) noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) compensation claims from 1998 to 2008 to determine if the 2008 milestone agreed at the 2003 Mine Health and Safety Summit was achieved. The number and costs of NIHL compensation claims in different commodity sectors and workplaces were collated. A secondary analysis of the ages of employees compensated after 2008 was conducted. A complementary retrospective analysis of audiogram data investigated the percentage loss of hearing (PLH) shift in different homogeneously exposed groups and occupations at two gold mines. The compensation claims analysis indicated a significant decrease in NIHL claims from 1998 to 2008, but the milestone was not achieved. The reason may be either that claims have not been submitted timeously as required by Instruction 171 and that the current submissions are a result of pre-2003 noise exposure, or that employees who were baselined are still developing NIHL owing to ineffective hearing conservation programmes in place in the mining industry. On the basis of best practice for hearing conservation, recommendations are made for leading indicators in hearing conservation programmes and for reducing the risks of NIHL in order to achieve the 2013 milestone.

Jan 1, 2012

By C. Musingwini, T. C. Sebutsoe

"The primary objective of any mining business unit is to make profit by extracting, processing, and selling minerals from a particular mineral deposit. It is important to optimize extraction of the mineral resource given time, capital, and space constraints. Mineral extraction is often associated with uncertainty due to variable technical and human factors. Technical factors such as grade distribution, ground conditions, and equipment reliability influence the performance of a mining production system (MPS). The performance of the MPS is also impacted by human factors such as employee skills, health, and attendance. Uncertainty associated with technical and human factors often leads to actual output differing from what was planned. Therefore an in-depth analysis of the significant causes of deviations from the planned outcomes is relevant.In this paper we investigate the empirical relationships between inputs and outputs in a MPS in order to assist management in directing efforts at key production drivers. Once a MPS has been empirically characterized, more effort and resources can be focused on the key decision-making variables (DMVs) in order to meet the planned outcomes.For a typical underground, tabular, narrow-reef conventional drill-andblast platinum mine the face advance, face length mined, number of teams, team efficiencies, and team size have a statistically significant relationship with the centares (m²) produced, which is a key performance indicator (KPI). The production function derived in this study can be used to align the physical, technical, and human factors together to predict the optimal output level. The most significant production lever of the MPS is the face advance. IntroductionA mining production system (MPS) is a result of an iterative process of design, planning, and optimization of mining input variables and decision-making variables (DMVs). The MPS exists within the mineral extraction link of the complete mining value chain. It represents the stage where mining companies have the opportunity, through production, to start generating returns on the investments undertaken. Returns on shareholders’ investments can be realized at this stage."

Jan 1, 2017

By Bosman

Medium suspensions play an integral part in the successful application of dense medium separation for both static and dynamic separators. Although models exist to predict particle movement as a function of medium density and viscosity, these models have been derived on the assumption of Newtonian rheology. Viscosity measurements of medium suspensions have shown that they are non-Newtonian, with a yield stress, and as such cannot be used in the existing models. As a result, medium selection remains an art based upon practical experience and indirect measurements of viscosity such as stability and cyclone differentials.

Jan 1, 2014

Mining is a business involving extraction of commodities of value to society from non-renewable resources. Consequently there is only one opportunity to extract ore from the ore body in order to unlock the value potential encompassed in the asset. It is therefore imperative that the maximum value is unlocked during the extraction programme, considering the relative wealth generated for shareholders and society, the sustainability of society, the environment and the operation. The bulk of the value that is unlocked is usually embedded in the initial design process. How do you measure sucess The most common measure of success is the return on investment, which is unlocked during the extraction process. This is usually only determined and locked-in during the study process. Another measure of success is the profitability that is achieved on a monthly basis. A further measure would be the enhancement the asset affords to the share price of the operation. Increasing focus on sustainable development requires that the impact on the society and environment received high priority as well. All these measures are largely encompassed in the cash flow and the discounted cash flows. This paper focuses on the dynamics of the cash flow and the most significant elements influencing return in investment. These include the mine design, production volume, sustainability, risk and valuation techniques. When do you add the most value? There are many different phases and definitions noted by different authors to demonstrate and standardise the study process for new projects. This paper is based on a process with 3 major components namely a conceptual study, a prefeasibility study and a feasibility study.

Jan 1, 2007

By Kevin Peacocke

The future of Gravity ? Primary mineral recovery ? Enhancement of existing process efficiency ? Pre-Concentration ? Alternative? or ?New? production

Jan 1, 2006

By M. Gericke

The microbial leaching of metal sulfides is now an established biotechnological technology. Over the past 25 years, refinements in the engineering design of bioleaching processes have paralleled advances in our understanding of the diversity and role of the micro-organisms driving the process and the mechanisms by which micro-organisms enhance metal sulfide oxidation. Commercial success started with the treatment of refractory gold concentrates using mesophilic micro-organisms, followed by the development of tank bioleaching processes for the treatment of base metal concentrates. This was, initially, a mesophilic process with limited potential for recovery of copper from chalcopyrite concentrates due to slow rates and low copper extractions. The exploitation of thermophiles represents a major breakthrough in the development of bioleaching technology for the treatment of chalcopyrite-containing ores and concentrates. This development also opened the route to heap bioleaching of chalcopyrite ores, which is now a major focus of research programmes and piloting campaigns. This paper reviews the historical development of minerals bioleaching processes and gives an update on the current status of commercial tank and heap bioleach operations around the world.

Jan 1, 2009

By B. S. Xakalashe, M. I. Khama, Q. G. Reynolds

The carbonaceous reduction of manganese ore is an energy-intensive process that releases large amounts of pollutant gases. In an attempt to circumvent the greenhouse gas emissions, this research investigates hydrogen as an alternative reductant. The reduction of manganese ore with hydrogen results in the structural changes in the intermediate products, which might limit the diffusion of the reactant gases through the pores. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models capture the structural changes and predict the rate controlling mechanism and this is key in designing the prereduction reactors. The current work uses CFD models to predict the degree of reduction in a shaft furnace under hydrogen reducing conditions. Manganese ore is described as a collection of scalar and tensor fields such as thermal conductivity of the porous medium, density, and viscous resistance. The results indicate that advection contributes significantly towards the overall transport of hydrogen to the reaction sites. Porosity of the final product was found to be higher than porosity of the raw material.

Mar 4, 2025

By T. van Heerden

A range of supported gold catalysts was prepared by ion exchange, varying many of the preparation variables, including concentration in the precursor solution, washing procedure, as well as drying and calcination procedures. These catalysts have been characterized extensively. TEM images show essentially the same crystallite size distributions, between 2?5 nm, for almost all catalysts, the only exception being catalysts not washed in ammonia, which did not show any small crystallites. Additional characterization with SEM yielded an interesting discovery. Catalysts that appear identical on the TEM also contain some large crystallites in the range of 50?500 nm. Differences in dispersion due to the drying procedure not seen on the TEM can now be observed. Oxygen chemisorption is being investigated as an additional method to characterize gold based catalysts to complement the typically used electron microscope techniques.

Jan 1, 2012