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By C. C. White

Much benefit can be achieved by a mining company and a manufacturer if both parties can communicate effectively with each other and assist in product development; mutually beneficial ideas and products will develop. This communication can best be achieved if both parties have the opportunity of having on their respective staffs, specialists whose function is to improve the use of products used in mine development. Although a great wealth of roof control knowledge has long existed among mine operators, until recently there was not an abundance of joint development of roof control material by manufacturers and mine operators. This was perhaps due, in past lean years, to the preoccupation of mine management with other overwhelming problems that arise in mining. Manage¬ment had little time for the lengthy process of product development. Until recently, only a few of the largest mining companies had fulltime personnel devoted to roof control. A bolt manufacturer who is invited to work with an operator's roof control people in developing new material is lucky indeed in that he learns what is wanted and he acquires the benefit of the operator's knowledge and experience. He has only to come up with a satisfactory product at an acceptable price - which is not always easy: The development of new products is usually costly and time consuming, and many new products fall by the wayside. In the case of point anchors, however, this product is here to stay. The advantage of point anchors over mechanical anchors is now a proven fact. This advantage is due to less bleed off and higher ultimate load capacity of the resin point anchors. Point anchored bolts have proven to be superior to fully grouted bolts in many areas. We at Birmingham Bolt Company are fortunate in that we have been involved in joint efforts to develop point anchors with several coal companies from whom excellent advice and direction was received. It is appropriate to mention before continuing that the use of point anchors began in the 1960's in Europe and became widespread only recently in the United States. They fall in two categories, point anchors and combination point anchors. These categories have been defined by the Bureau of Mines as follows: (1) point anchors having 24" of grouted length and (2) combination anchors having 24" or more of grouted length. In the present nomenclature, all are anchored with resin or some sort of cementing compound between the rebar or tensioned element and the wall of the hole. The latest development includes an expansion shell as well as rebar, the purpose of the expansion shell being to facilitate installation without the delay necessary in use of types that require a waiting periond for setting of the resin before tightening. (See figures #1 and #2.

Jan 1, 1982

By Syd Peng

"As the International Conference on Ground Control in Mining (ICGCM) enters its 35th year in 2015, it is time to look back and identify the areas that need to be emphasized and to look forward to see what areas need to be researched in the future. In the past three decades, ground control has made a tremendous advancement, and many case studies published in the 36 volumes of proceedings have demonstrated its important role in the daily mining operations. However, there is still plenty of room for improvements. This paper discusses the research needs in 12 subject areas, including mine geology, rock property, zones of disturbance in overburden, computer modeling, underground stress measurements, research method, roof bolting, coal pillars, failures, subsidence, shield supports, and coal bumps.INTRODUCTIONThe International Conference on Ground Control in Mining (ICGCM) was founded in 1981. Since then, 1,546 papers have been published in the 36 conference proceedings, including the three surface subsidence workshops held in the 1981, 1986, and 1992. All types of topical areas regarding mining, from geotechnical core loggings in the exploration phase through backfilling after mining to finally spoil piles stability on the surface, have been addressed. A review of these papers, and other related literature as well, indicate that ground control has developed to become an inseparable part of mine design and a problem-solving tool for safe production.After 34 years, it is time to look back and identify the areas that need to be emphasized and to look forward to see what areas need to be researched in the future. There is no doubt that the conference series has achieved the goal for which it was originally designed: to provide an annual forum for the exchange of information among the researchers, government regulators, equipment manufacturers, consultants, service providers, and—above all—mine operators. There have been many papers addressing the application of ground control techniques for successful mine design and safe production, and, without these papers, many projects would have failed. In fact, the conference emphasis on application types of papers may have steered too far toward the application side. A review of the conference papers shows that papers have been leaning mostly toward the applied side, leaving most, if not all, fundamental issues behind in nearly every topical area. This paper addresses research needs in 12 topical areas: mine geology, rock property, zones of disturbance in overburden, computer modeling, underground stress measurements, research method, roof bolting, coal pillars, failures, subsidence, shield supports, and coal bumps."

Jan 1, 2015

By Xinzhi (Thomas) Du

"In order to monitor the overburden strata deformation over a longwall mining area in the Pittsburgh Coal Seam, three boreholes were drilled across the longwall panel. Each borehole employed multiple-point borehole extensometers (MBE) to monitor overburden strata movement during and after the longwall face passed under the study area. The longwall face in the study area was 1,428 ft wide and 4,000 ft long. The average mining height was about 7 ft. The overburden depth ranged from 550 ft to 650 ft with an average of 600 ft. The final extensometer readings indicated that overburden strata initially showed sign of movement when the longwall face was 700 ft inby the MBE. The rate of strata movement accelerated when the face was 300 ft inby MBE. When the face was directly under MBE, a sudden anchor displacement occurred, indicating rapid strata movement once under-mined gob. The readings showed insignificant strata movement after the longwall face was 400–700 ft outby MBE.INTRODUCTIONThe longwall mining method is an efficient mining method of underground mining. Surface and subsurface strata are inevitably disturbed above the longwall mined out gob. Figure 1 shows the four zones of disturbance in the overburden strata in response to longwall mining.A longwall shear cuts the coal seam and allows the immediate roof strata to cave into irregular blocky material to fill the void. This is called the caved zone. The caved zone extends from the mining horizon to six or eight times the mining height, depending on the bulk factor of each caving strata layer. The fractured zone is located above the caved zone, in which the strata breaks into regular blocks by vertical or sub-vertical fractures caused by bending forces due to the weight of the underlying strata. The surface soil and rock crack zone extends to approximately 50 ft below the surface. The surface cracking is caused by downward movement of the surface. Between the fractured zone and surface crack zone is the continuous deformation zone. The strata in this zone deforms gently without causing any major cracks that extend long enough to cut through the thickness of the strata, as in the fractured zone (Peng, 2006).The objective of this project is to provide fundamental rock mechanics research about overburden strata movement response to longwall-related activity. The findings aid in better understanding pillar stability, gas well subsidence management, hydraulic impacts, and numerical modeling."

Jan 1, 2018

By Kun Li, Shuaishua Yue, Huigui Li, Yuan Ruifu, Yongxiang Xu, Huamin Li

"Coal seams in Tashan Mine of Datong Coal Group in China average 49.2 ft (15m) thick and have been mined by the top coal caving longwall mining method of large mining height. Mining height was 12.5 ft (3.8m) and the top coal caving height was 36.7 ft (11.2m). The gateroad pillar between panels was 124.6 ft (38m). During retreat mining, serious bumps occurred in the gateroads on both sides of the pillar affecting safety production. Therefore, pillarless mining was experimented.Using numerical modeling and comparative study of cases of similar mining condition, it was decided to employ a 19.7 ft (6m) wide pillar, rather than the previous 124.6 ft (38m) wide pillar. Support system for the gateroads was designed and implemented. During gateroad development, pillar failure conditions and entry deformation were monitored. Hydraulic fracturing method was employed to cut off the K3 sandstone along the entry rib so as to reduce the abutment pressure induced during retreat mining. Support reinforcement method combining grouting and advanced reinforcement methods was proposed to insure stable gateroad ahead of mining. Methane drainage and nitrogen injection were implemented to eliminate hazards associated with mine fire and spontaneous combustion.Since the development of gateroad has just completed, and retreat mining has not begun, the effectiveness of the proposed methods is unknown at this point. However, monitoring will continue until after mining. The results will be published in a separate paper.INTRODUCTIONGeneral descriptionTashan mine is located about 15 Km south of the city of Datong, Shanxi province, China (aure 1). The 2014 raw coal production was 25 million mt."

Jan 1, 2015

By Robert Kimutis, Ke Yang, Yi Luo, Jianwei Cheng

"Surface subsidence processes, especially those associated with a longwall mining operations, could cause operational and/or safety problems to railroads. For railroads with normal amounts of traffic, both the limited time window between traffic and the limited space available make the efforts to return the railroad back to its original state nearly impossible. In order to ensure the safe operation of a subsiding railway, the partial lifting method has been developed and applied. This paper describes the principle and application of the method. A case of applying this method to mitigate subsidence effects on a long section of railway has been demonstrated.INTRODUCTIONMaintaining an operational railway as it is experiencing a longwall subsidence process is not an easy task. The subsidence process may induce sufficient strain and curvature to cause problems to the railroad structures. Localized subsidence-induced slope often is significantly larger than the permissible ruling gradient of 0.7% for a locomotive to haul a loaded train reliably. In order to ensure safe operation, it would be ideal to instantly lift the railroad track back to its original level as it is subsiding. However, it is often impractical to do so due to the limited time windows available between railway traffic and the available space on the railroad base.A partial lifting method has been developed to keep the railroad operational under such limitations. The subsiding railroad track is raised by only a determined, partial amount of the occurred subsidence at a given time. By making such a determined adjustment, the railroad track can be maintained on a smooth and operational profile, and the high strain and curvature on the railroad structures can be reduced as well. To define a smooth railroad track profile in a subsided section the following two conditions should be met: (1) the maximum railroad gradient should be less than the permissible ruling gradient, and (2) the recommended amount of adjustment should be able to be made by the repair crew within the available time windows between scheduled railway traffic.The subsidence effects on a long section of railroad over two longwall panels have been successfully mitigated using the partial lifting method. The railroad experienced a maximum subsidence 89 of about 5 .0 ft (1.5 m) with the average subsidence along the entire length being about 3.45 ft (1.05 m). However, the average adjustment due to lifting that was made along the entire length of the subsidence-influenced railway was only 0.5 ft (152 mm)."

Jan 1, 2010

By Guo Wenbing

"INTRODUCTIONThere is a great amount of coal (about 140 billions tons) left unmined under the surface structures, water bodies, railways (referred to as the “three-body”). Coal mining under “threebody” especially that under surface structures has become a major problem in the mining area. The key problem of mining under surface structures is to control overburden strata and surface movements. At present, the major surface subsidence control methods are strip pillar mining, backfilling mining method, room and pillar mining, grouting of bed separations, harmonic mining, and so on. Wongawilli mining method is a high-efficient shortwall mining method developed based on the room and pillar mining, and named after the first successful trial in Australia “Wongawilli” coal seam. The room and pillar mining equipment such as continuous miner is employed in this method. Its major advantage is flexible face layout. It can be used to mine the small wedge coal blocks and those that are difficult to be mined with retreat longwall mining method. It requires less capital investment, short lead time for production, flexible equipment operation and face move and high productivity. It has been applied in some China’s coal mines.The “Wongawilli strip coal mining technology” is a new coal mining method for mining under surface structures. It combines the strip mining longwall layout and Wongawilli high efficient mining technology. This technology can fully utilize the advantages of both the strip pillar and Wongawilli mining methods, and overcomes the disadvantages such as frequent face move, and low mining efficiency in strip pillar mining, and poor ventilation condition and poor long-term stability problems of coal pillars. In this paper, the Wongawilli strip mining method was designed for Wangtaipu mine and its feasibility was studied using numerical modeling and surface subsidence prediction.Geological and mining conditionsAt present, most of the No.15 coal seam reserves totaling 377.07 million tons in Wangtaipu mine are located under surface structures. In order to mine the coal under the surface structures, the Wongawilli strip mining method was employed. An appropriate panel was selected for trial and the surface movement monitoring lines were set up. The trial area is located in panel XV2214 (East) ( re 1). In this area, the floor elevation of coal seam is +634~646m, the surface elevation is +810~817.5m, and the average depth of coal seam is about 174m.The average panel length is 282m and average panel width is 73.5m. The seam dips 1~3° and is 1.8~2.5m thick with an average of 2.15m. The roof and floor rock characteristics are shown in Table 1."

Jan 1, 2015

By Soheil Bahrampour

Void detection and identification of bed separation while drilling holes in rocks for roof bolting can be a great source of information for the evaluation of ground conditions and adjustment of ground control or support measures. This can be accomplished through the monitoring and analysis of drilling parameters by the roof bolter. This paper reviews work currently under way in a joint study between Penn State University and J. H. Fletcher & Co. The detection of voids, along with identification of rock types, can lead to development of 3D roof maps, which can subsequently be used to evaluate ground support and its suitability for given ground conditions in tunneling and mining operations. Existing algorithms for void detection utilize the sensory information of the drill unit, such as feed and rotary pressure, revolutions per minute (RPM), and penetration rate, to detect voids or joints on the roof/ ribs. While the void detection algorithms are being revised to allow analysis of available data from the existing sensory systems of the roofbolters with higher accuracy and lower number of false detections, additional sensors have been added to the drill to improve its ability for accurate detection of the voids and joints. This includes installation of vibration and acoustic sensors on a drilling unit at J. H. Fletcher & Co., and pertinent data analysis which are discussed in this paper. Initial results indicate that the data obtained by vibration and acoustic sensors at high sampling rates can be used to improve the performance of the void detection algorithms independently, and when combined with the modified algorithms using existing sensors, it can substantially improve the capabilities of current void detection system.

Jan 1, 2013

By Long Fan, Shimin Liu, Guijie Sang

"Weak shale roof falls have long been the main cause for fatalities in underground coal mines. Moisture-induced swelling is one of the root causes for the degradation of roof shales. In this study, slake durability tests are conducted on shale samples collected from Illinois basin coal mines, and different levels of durability are analyzed according to Gamble slake durability classification. There are two main mechanisms influencing the shape of retained fragments after two cycles of wetting and drying: mechanical abrasion and swelling pressure. A prototype optically based shale swelling apparatus is designed and manufactured for the shale free-swelling measurement. The experimental results suggest that swelling pressure tends to deteriorate shale laminations. Moisture-induced swelling of the No. 6 roof shale from Bear Run Mine was measured under 100% relative humidity condition. The measured swelling strain normal to beddings is ~5 to 7 times greater than the swelling strain parallel to beddings. This suggests that interlayer expansion plays a key role in moisture-induced swelling. Cracks induced by swelling pressure tend to occur along the bedding plane and lead to shale deterioration. INTRODUCTION Background Ground falls have long been the cause for nearly 50% of all fatalities in underground coal mines and continue to be one of the greatest safety hazards in underground spaces. Among the various ground fall hazards, roof failure takes up 23% of total fatalities in underground coal mines, of which 13% are due to skin failure and 10% are due to massive roof falls (Mark, Pappas, and Barczak, 2011). Roof failures associated with weak shales are summarized in previous studies (Molinda and Mark, 2010; Aughenbaugh and Bruzewski, 1973; Bajpayee, Pappas, and Ellenberger, 2014; Murphy, 2016). For mine roof instability and failure, two aspects can explain the failure mechanism of weak roofs. One is the elevated stress concentration in lateral direction due to the mining-induced excavation and its stress redistribution around the mine opening (Song and Stankus, 1997; Fan and Liu, 2017; Hill, 1986). The other mechanism is the passive stress-relief due to the strength weakening induced by the ambient moisture and temperature fluctuations during a period of time. Shale is moisture sensitive and presents a lower durability if it is exposed to a highly humid environment for a long time, thus leading to roof deterioration and instability in underground coal mines (Aughenbaugh and Bruzewski, 1976; Stateham and Radcliffe, 1978; Chugh and Missavage, 1981; Klemetti, Oyler, and Molinda, 2009). It is well known that shale is a clay-bearing sedimentary rock and that clay minerals are water sensitive. The moisture uptake for shale will induce the micro-deformation of a shale matrix, thus the structure and strength of shale is a function of time and intensity of moisture exposure. All mine engineers notice moisture-induced shale deterioration; however, the underlying mechanism(s) are still not fully understood due to the complexity of geophysical-chemical water-shale interactions (Huang, Aughenbaugh, and Rockaway, 1986; Hensen and Smit, 2002; Diaz-Perez, Cortés-Monroy, and Roegiers, 2007). The coal mining industry is still in the process of finding a technically sound, cost-effective technology to prevent this unexpected and unpredictable shale roof failure. Therefore, understanding how the moisture-sensitive shale responses to various ambient moisture and what role exposure duration plays in shale roof failure is key to prevent unexpected roof incidents, which will lay the foundation for the long-term roof support design and ground control management."

Jan 1, 2017

By Karsten Zimmermann, Peter Cain

"To receive regulatory approval for a new coal mining operation in North America, extensive investigations of feasibility and potential environmental impacts, including ground deformations, are required. Figure 1 shows pictures from mine sites and an example mine map with the planned panel layout for one seam of the multi-seam longwall operation considered.The cumulative mined coal thickness of 22 meters in some areas of the operation requires a comprehensive forecast of expected ground movements and subsidence impacts (e.g., subsidence, slope, displacement, curvature and strain). In the frame of the impact study, the prediction of these impact factors was conducted by DMT using the computer program SPS 4D, based on the Ruhrkohle modeling method by Ehrhardt and Sauer (1961).This paper briefly presents the modeling method and explains the benefits and possibilities for its international application. Information gathered from literature studies on subsidence in North America were incorporated into the initial model parameterization. The article shows the ways in which the observed influences of mountainous topography on surface displacements and deformations can be considered by an extension of the subsidence prediction model and integration of DEM information.SUBSIDENCE MODELFor the calculation of mining-induced subsidence and deformation, DMT has developed subsidence prediction software SPS 4D, which is built according to the stochastic prediction model by (Ehrhardt and Sauer, 1961). The model is based on the subsidence theory by (Knothe, 1953) with a specific parametrization of the stochastic influence function and includes enhancements for dynamic subsidence calculations after (Sroka, 1978). In Europe, mainly in Germany and Poland, the model is approved by the authorities as a standard model for subsidence prediction in mining areas. However, extensive research within R&D activities has shown the possibility to predict mining-induced subsidence considering the specific mining conditions in North America (Zimmermann and Fritschen, 2007)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Fernando O. L. Xavier

"The Barro Branco coal mine was located in the southern region of Brazil, in the state of Santa Catarina. In 2002, an incident occurred at the mine, leading to a violent, massive pillar failure, resulting in almost 100 failed pillars in less than 3 hours, totaling nearly 700 collapsed pillars after a period of 6 weeks. The paper outlines the geological and operational conditions before the accident and analyzes the primary factors leading up to the event. This paper also discusses and examines the unusual characteristic of violent, uncontrolled pillar bursts that occur over a longer timespan, in comparison to other equally violent but rapid events, such as those that occurred at the Crandall Canyon Mine, at a Book Cliffs District mine, and at the Solvay Mine. INTRODUCTION The southern region of Brazil holds 100% of the coal reserves for the country, and half of it is located within the state of Santa Catarina. Almost the entire Brazil’s coal production, around 8 million tonnes/year, is consumed for electricity generation. Most of the coal mines in Santa Catarina are underground room-and-pillar mines, and most are shallow mines, with depths of cover ranging from 20 to 400 m. The Barro Branco mine, near the city of Criciuma, experienced a violent mine collapse at the end of March 2003, which was analyzed and discussed by Zingano, Koppe, and Costa (2004). The event consisted of violent failure of 100 pillars in less than 3 hours, and a subsequent failure of approximately 700 additional pillars over the next 6 weeks. After the panel collapsed, the mine was closed due to unsafe conditions as a consequence of the seismic event. A map of the collapsed area is shown in Figure 1. GEOLOGY AND MINING METHOD There are two coal seams mined at Barro Branco mine. The first is the 1.5 m to 2.3 m thick Barro Branco Seam, under about 75 m of cover. The second is the Bonito Seam, where the collapse occurred. The Bonito Seam is 2.5 to 5.5 m thick located at a depth of approximately 80 m, with an average dip of 0° to 15°. Various major faults and inherent joints are present in the area."

Jan 1, 2017

By Yongping Wu

The steeply dipping coal seams in this paper refer to those with the angle of inclination ranging from 35° to 55°. The reserves of the steep coal seams account for approximately 15%~20% of the total coal reserves in China. In the past 12 years, the top-coal caving mining method had been used to mine the steeply dipping thick (11.5-16.4 ft or 3.5-5.0m) coal seams. However, the mining process of top coal caving is complex with low recovery rate and nearly 30% of coal was wasted. Those problems can be solved by using the single pass large mining height (11.5-16.4 ft or 3.5-5.0m) method. But the movement of the overlying strata around the mining face area of large mining height is complex and it is hard to control the stability of ?rock-shield support? system. Therefore, field measurement, numerical simulation and physical (similarity material) simulation methods were used simultaneously to analyze the strata movement, roof structure and rock-shield support interaction characteristics. The results indicate that strata movement, which is the same as mining the steeply dipping seams with conventional mining heights, is asymmetrical about the dipping direction of the face; deformation, failures, and movement of the surrounding rocks are more intense; the roof weighting interval decreases; the weighting intensity increases significantly; and face sloughage occurs frequently. In the gob, the space for sliding and rolling of the roof increases; the broken main roof tends to form an anti-dip pile structure; the backfilling and compactness of broken roof increase at the lower portion of the face, thereby inducing significant unbalance in stress distribution between the upper and lower portions of the face. The overlying strata above the face form a multi-level step structure. The characteristics of contact and loading of roof-shield support system are more complex. The range of shield load variation is larger, and interaction between shield supports occurs frequently. Anti-toppling and anti-sliding devices at the face become more difficult to implement. The research results provide a theoretical basis for the mining practices in the steeply dipping thick seams with a large mining height. The practice in panel 25221 of 2130 coal mine indicates that the accident rates have been greatly reduced and good technical and economic benefits have bee realized.

Jan 1, 2014

By Monte R. Hieb

Study of moisture-induced swelling strain in Pennsylvanian Period rocks of the Appalachian Plateau in West Virginia shows a 2:1 biaxial horizontal anisotropy which trends NW-SE. Oriented in-situ slabs of coal mine roof rock were collected across West Virginia, dry-sawed to size, air-dried to stability, and then monitored for moisture changes and deformations in the horizontal plane through one wetting cycle and drying cycle. Biaxial swelling strains were exhibited in nearly all rocks tested, with maximum horizontal deformations occurring normally-incident to the strike of regional geologic fold structures. This relationship persists as fold strike varies across the study area. A connection with Alleghanian fold development and/or post-Alleghanian fold relaxation is suggested. Deformations were largest in shales, but occurred in sandstones and siltstones as well. During testing, moisture-induced fractures (MIF) developed parallel to the regional fold structure and ranged in size from hairline cracks to sample-destroying cracks that were orthogonal to the observed biaxial swelling strain direction. Preferential wetting and swelling of clay minerals along NE-trending fractures, related to a fold-parallel fracture fabric of regional extent across West Virginia, is the most likely reason for the observed systematic NW-oriented biaxial swelling strains. The testing methods used in this study are simple and inexpensive and produce robust results that offer insight into a regional, anisotropic mechanical weakness that imparts a dynamic, asymmetrical horizontal stress to moisture-sensitive coal mine roof rocks over time. Because a similar mechanical fabric has been reported in Devonian-age shales, these findings may have implications for shale gas developers in the Appalachian Basin challenged by rapid aperture closure rates along horizontallydrilled induced fracture networks in Devonian rocks like the Marcellus Shale. The paper concludes with an example of how the concept of a preferred swelling strain direction might be applied to improve the effectiveness of roof trusses.

Jan 1, 2013

In recent years, improvements made to the longwall system have accelerated at a faster pace than those made to the gate entry development system. As a consequence, unless planned years ahead of time, extending the panel length is nearly impossible without some innovative approach. At Cyprus Amax Coal's Emerald mine the G panel length was extended by 3,500 ft- by developing three entries across it to facilitate development of its headgate and tailgate entries simultaneously when the adjoining F panel was in operation. After evaluating alternative supporting methods and associated risks, determination was made to backfill these entries and crosscuts using a low strength flyash cement mixture prior to mining thru. Instrumentation was also used to monitor the stress change or front abutment stress in both the coal and the backfilled material ahead of the face. Longwall mining thru these three entries took about four eight-hour shifts and proved to be very successful. The designed flyash cement mixture provided adequate roof stability and caused no difficulty in the shearer's cutting while eliminating an in-panel longwall face move and minimizing the risk of roof or floor failure in the in-panel openings, or in the worst scenario loss of the face during the longwall cutting thru. This approach provided the intended result of extending G panel and recovered about one million tons of coal. This paper summarizes the engineering design of the cutting-thru project and flyash cement mixture, front abutment stress changes within the longwall coal block, backfilled material, and coal pillars ahead of the longwall face, and our underground observations

Jan 1, 1997

By Guy Reed, Russell Frith

"The method of determining coal pillar strength equations from databases of stable and failed case histories is more than 50 years old and has been applied in different countries by different researchers in a range of mining situations. While common wisdom sensibly limits the use of the resultant pillar strength equations and methods to design scenarios that are consistent with the founding database, there are a number of examples where failures have occurred as a direct result of applying empirical design methods to coal pillar design problems that are inconsistent with the founding database.This paper explores the reasons why empirically derived coal pillar strength equations tend to be problem-specific and should be considered as providing no more than a pillar strength “index.” These include the non-consideration of overburden horizontal stress within the mine stability problem, an inadequate definition of super-critical overburden behaviour as it applies to standing coal pillars, and the non-consideration of overburden displacement and coal pillar strain limits. All of which combine to potentially complicate and confuse the back-analysis of coal pillar strength from failed cases.A modified coal pillar design representation and model are presented based on coal pillars acting to reinforce a horizontally stressed overburden, rather than suspend an otherwise unstable self-loaded overburden or section, the latter having been at the core of historical empirical studies into coal pillar strength and stability.INTRODUCTIONThe inspiration for this paper is founded in three statements from two eminent persons in the field of coal pillar strength research, Jim Galvin and Essie Esterhuizen, as follows:Both Salamon and Munro and [the University of New South Wales] based the derivation of their pillar strength formulae on a criteria that the diameter of a panel of pillars, W, had to at least equal the depth of mining, H. This was thought to result in full tributary loading. It is now known that there are some mining environments included in both the South African and Australian databases in which mining span must exceed depth by a considerable margin in order to achieve full deadweight loading. Hence, it is logical to conclude that these data points may have contributed to pillar strength being overestimated by Salamon and Munro and UNSW (underline added by authors). Normally, this should be of no consequence because it is reflected in the probability of design success associated with any given safety factor (Galvin, 2006)."

Jan 1, 2018

By Gregory Molinda

Groundfalls are much more likely to occur in coal mine intersections than in entries. NIOSH is using the experience of U.S. coal mines to determine the factors which influence intersection instability and provide guidelines for the safe excavation and support of intersections. Detailed field investigations have resulted in a database of U.S. coal mines containing 12 mines and 639 roof falls so far. By using the roof fall rate as the outcome variable, correlations between roof geology (CMRR), intersection span, and roof support have been established. Case studies have indicated that replacing 3 way intersections with 4-way intersections may not reduce the total number of roof falls. Additionally, the size of intersection spans tend to decrease with lower (weaker) CMRR. Protocols have been established for the collections of roof bolt parameters. The performance of individual roof bolts can now be tracked with roof fall rate.

Jan 1, 1998

By Zhou Ying

Based on the mining condition and roof lithology of the 2-3 coal seam at Gengcun Mine, the simulated materials modeling method was used to study the movement process and characteristics of overburden strata movement and to analyze the movement laws of overburden strata during top coal caving mining. Based on the modeling results, variation of the peak abutment pressure and its effect on the top coal's crushing and caving in the mining process was discussed.

Jan 1, 2001

By Claude A. Goode

Large quantities of high grade coal exist in thick seams in the United States. Many of these thick seams are too deep to be surface mined and do not lend themselves readily to underground extraction. To develop the new mining technology required to effectively mine thick seams, the Department of Energy has entered into a Cooperative Agreement with Mid- Continent Resources, Inc. to demonstrate the multilift longwall mining technique in a 28 foot-thick seam at their L.S. Wood No. 3 mine near Redatone, Colorado. The seam will be extracted in two lifts, with a 5-foot natural partition of coal left between the upper and lower lifts. Proper selection of face supports is critical to the success of this project. Specifications were defined for the roof supports, and it was concluded that the supports selected must provide full coverage, yield at the legs, and have a 60-inch push- out cantilever that can be set at any position under full load. A Hemscheidt two-leg shield was judged as the best qualified candidate and was selected for the multi-lift trial.

Jan 1, 1981

By Deno M. Pappas

The purpose of this U.S. Bureau of Mines study was to determine the material stiffness properties of the gob for use in numerical models of rock mass response to longwall mining. Photographs of actual mine gob were used to approximate particle size gradations of gob material. The gradation curve was shifted down to a laboratory scale, and 20 uniaxial compression tests were conducted on simulated gob material from 3 different rock types. The study found that the nonlinear stress-strain curves obtained from the three materials were similar, and could be represented in terms of moduli as follows: Es = 2.36s + 1,360 (1) Et = 0.00181s2 + 9.33s + 294 (2) where Es = secant modulus, psi Et = tangent modulus, psi and, s = stress level (due to overburden), psi. These curves correlated well with the theoretical solution curves developed by Salamon. Other effects on gob behavior were attributable to these studied factors including void ratio, thickness-to-width shape ratio, and rock compressive strength. The generated equations should provide numerical modelers with a practical means of estimating gob modulus as a function of stress level.

Jan 1, 1993

By Stephen P. Signer

A method to assist in the evaluation and selection of roof bolts using in situ measurements of roof bolt loading has been developed by researchers of the Spokane Research Center, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Both axial and bending forces are measured by strain gauges at many locations along the length of fully grouted bolts during various stages of mining. This information is then used to ( I) predict bolt loading for variations in bolt spacing, grade, and diameter, (2) calculate the design changes necessary in zones where bending loads are high, and (3) determine if bolt length is adequate. Results from several case studies of full-column bolt loading in coal mine gate roads are used to illustrate the design method. This knowledge will give design engineers a tool for the selection of roof support systems that will improve underground safety by reducing roof bolt failures.

Jan 1, 1997

By John Shepherd

Pillar extraction carried out using various methods (split and lift, Wongawilli and old Ben) involves the formation of narrow fenders (commonly 7 m of coal) formed by driving "splits" for lifting off with a continuous miner. The strata above a split and fender adjacent to the goaf consists of a cantilever beam (usually >3 m thick) that extends from the solid coal and bridges across the fender. Lifting off the fender from the split in safe conditions depends upon the bridging capability of the cantilever and the fender strength. The nature and competence of the immediate and near roof, the support capability of the coal fender and the presence of faults and or joints can adversely affect the bridging behaviour of the cantilever. Insufficient knowledge of these parameters can lead to extraction under dangerous conditions. Remnants of fenders ("stooks") also support the cantilever and their dimensions are critical to obtain regular caving and goaf falls. Stook area, goaf roof span and roof stand-up time after lifting can be related and only a relatively small increase in Btook area of 10-15 m2 can lead to a significantly increased stand-up time, especially under a massive roof. Such conditions strongly influence the redistribution of abutment stresses and can create increased outbye pillar loading. Based on detailed underground geotechnical investigations, it is concluded that strata caveability, roof cantilever behaviour, fender H:W ratio and remnant stook size are all critical parameters for successful and safe pillar extraction.

Jan 1, 1992