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By William H. Shockley

[Secretary's Note.—The following notes, arranged and edited in this office, but not yet revised by the author, were placed at my disposal with much modest hesitation (due to their incomplete and fragmentary character), upon my earnest request, and my argument that such recent and trustworthy data concerning a new and important mining industry ought not to be withheld from our Transactions, simply because they are not sufficient to constitute a complete academic treatise on the subject. This argument is recommended to the attention of many other members, who are waiting for the opportunity to contribute something "monumental" to our Transaclions. In a number of instances, death has nullified this ambition, and the intended "monumental " contribution has turned out to be an obituary notice by the Secretary, instead of a valuable record of the professional experieuce thus hopelessly lost to the world.—R. W. H.] The official publications of the Russian Government give fairly complete statistics of the dredges operated in the Empire; and in a recent English bluebook, Mr. Cook's report on Siberian Trade presents a brief account of dredging in Siberia. The data in Table I. (not given by Mr. Cook) have been taken from the Gold Mining Messenger (Russian) for July, 1905. These interesting statistics, though incomplete, show that the Yenisei dredges are working on poor ground and yield small returns. According to report, but few yield a profit exceeding 10 per cent. per annum on the capital invested. In the summers of 1904 and 1905, I traveled in the Urals as far north as lat. 61° N., long. 61" E., on the Losva river, a part of the vast system of the Ob river. This clear-water stream starts from the summits of the Urals at an altitude of 4,000 ft., and flows through a flat country, densely wooded with larch, spruce, pine, fir, birch and poplar. The river is full offish, and is navigable for good-sized steamers as far as Ivdell. Winter lasts from early November to late April, the temperature ranging from -60" F. to a summer maximum of 90° F. The rainfall is 20 in. The climate is healthy, although mosquitoes,

Jan 1, 1907

I. PRESIDING OFFICER, At all business meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, the First Vice-President, or, in the absence of both of them, any other Vice-President or Director, chosen by the meeting, shall preside. At all other meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice-presidents shall preside. If none of these be present the meeting shall elect a Chairman. The President shall do and perform such other duties as may from time to time be assigned to him by resolution of the Board of Directors of the Institute. II. ORDER OF BUSINESS. At each business meeting of the Institute the order of business shall be as follows: 1. Reading of minutes of preceding meeting. 2. Report of the President, 3. Report of the Treasurer. 4. Report of the Secretary. 5. Election of Directors. 6, Reports of Standing Committees. 7. Reports of Special Committees. 8. Special Orders. 9. Miscellaneous business. This order of business may be changed at any meeting, by a vote of a majority of the Members and Associates present. At all sessions of the Institute, other than business meetings, the order of proceedings and the time of adjournment shall rest in the discretion of the presiding officer. III. SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTE. The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of all the meetings of the Institute, He shall be custodian of the corporate seal, of the minute books and of all the legal documents belonging to the Institute. He shall have charge on behalf of the Institute of all correspondence. He shall notify all Officers and Directors and all members of committees of their election and appointment; shall issue notices of all meetings of the Board, and of the annual and other business meetings of the Institute; and shall, in calling special meetings of the Directors, specify the objects of such meetings. He shall act as clerk at all the meetings of the Board of Directors and at all meetings of the Institute, The Secretary shall be custodian of all technical or scientific papers submitted to the Institute for its consideration and shall have general charge and supervision of the editing and proof-reading of all material published by the Institute, and of the distribution thereof. The Secretary shall be the custodian of all back numbers of the Transactions and other publications of the Institute. There shall be kept under his direction an account in ledger form of all such back numbers, He shall on the first day of January of each year submit to the Library Committee a statement of the number of copies of Transactions, magazines and other publications printed during the preceding year, giving the number distributed and remaining undistributed; also a statement covering additions to and withdrawals from the total stock of Institute publications, with the number 'remaining on hand at date of statement,

Jan 1, 1928

By AIME AIME

Few men in the coal-mining industry have had experience in metal mining as well, as has Carroll A. Garner. He went to the Arizona copper country immediately after graduating from Penn State in mining engineering in 1910, and worked in the engineering departments of the Miami and Inspiration companies for two years. Then he came back to Penn State far a year as an instructor in mining engineering before embarking in the coal industry. He was born in Ashland, Pa., July 6, 1889, and reared there, in the heart of the anthracite district, which undoubtedly influenced his choice of a professional career. The green Pennsylvania hills were preferred to the Arizona cactus country. His first coal-mining job was with the Lehigh Valley Coal Co., of which he was division engineer at Hazleton when he joined the Institute in 1917. He gave that up to go to Ohio as head of the Fernwood Mining Co. in 1921, but even that was too far west and after two months he was back in Pennsylvania as assistant general manager of the company that has since monopolized his services the Jeddo Highland Coal Co. Since 1927 he has been vice-president in charge of operations of both the Jeddo-Highland and the Hazle Brook Coal Companies, Jeddo, Pa. Between them they normally produce about 1,500,000 tons of what Mr. Garner will readily admit is the very highest grade of anthracite, utilizing the services of some 2600 men.

Jan 1, 1942

By M. G. Corson

UNTIL recently, the characteristics of cast copper have seldom been studied and such study as has been made has been inadequate. The prevailing idea seems to be that since pure copper is infrequently used in the cast state, there is no reason for trying to establish precise data regard-ing the properties of the metal in that condition. On the other hand, wrought copper either in the shape of sheets or wire rarely fails in service, except as a result of the action of reducing gases at the annealing tempera-tures, so there is little incentive to study the properties of the cast shapes -cakes, bars, ingots and billets-for-the sake of tracing the causes of failures of the wrought metal to the cast stock. However, about a decade ago, wirebars of American origin often cracked badly while being hot-rolled in mills in Germany. This led to four investigations: by E. Seidl and E. Schiebold,1 by P. Siebe,2 by O. Bauer and G. Sachs,3 and by G. Welter.4 These authors came to the conclusion that failures in hot-rolling were due essentially to the presence .of a wide zone of columnar crystals between the thin layer of fine crystals near the surfaces of the bars and the large but more nearly equiaxed grains of the central core. This macrostructural defect was explained in turn by the probable upward deviation in the temperature of the metal while it was being poured into the molds of the casting machine. More recently, cast shapes of copper were investigated by N. P. Allen5 and by C. Blazey.6 Allen examined vertically cast wirebars and hori-zontally cast wedge cakes of electrolytic tough-pitch copper, but only for the distribution of densities; i.e., porosity. Blazey was interested mainly in the mechanism of the variations in electrical conductivity clue to cold-work and anneal, but gave introductively an account of the composi-tion and average densities of the tough-pitch horizontally cast wirebars used. As far as the present writer can tell, no investigation was under-taken for the sake of presenting a picture of the distribution of mechanical characteristics in the wirebars of copper, tough-pitch or otherwise.

Jan 1, 1938

By Thomas L. Watson

MY thanks are due to Mr. Frank Firmstone, Easton, Pa., who has called my attention to the statement in my papers that " Barite, fluorite and quartz, though not observed in the Tennessee area," . . . as possibly misleading to the reader, if construed to mean that such a discovery had never been made. Mr. Firmstone is correct in assuming that this statement referred only to the study of the worked areas of the metallic ores, especially zinc, made in the course of the survey upon which my paper was based. The occurrence of barite and fluorite with lead-ores in Tennessee was reported by Prof. Safford,2 in 1869, and by Safford and Killebrew,3 in 1887, with the further statement that about 1,000,000 lb. of barite were annually mined in Greene, Washington and Jefferson counties, Tenn., and that considerable deposits occur also in McMinn, Smith and other counties. It is also noted that the barite ".usually occurs in veins, associated with galena." The present worked areas of barite are, however, distinct barite propositions, without workable quantities of either lead or zinc, so far as mining operations have gone, and the areas are more or less removed from the present areas of zinc-ores. Mr. Firmstone informs me also that, in 1892, he observed, in the magnesian limestone at Watauga Point, in Carter county, on the left bank of the Watauga river, a little below the mouth of Buffalo creek, small quantities of galena and some fluorite.

Jan 1, 1907

By William G. [Peryam], Bishop Ottey M., Fred E. Johnson

THE Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company is the largest copper producer in the Philippines, and the only one that makes a concentrate valuable principally for its copper; also, it has the only productive copper mine situated at considerable distance from the sea, and is the only one in the islands operating its own smelter. The Lepanto mine is in the Municipal District of Mankayan, sub-province of Benguet, near the heart of the Mountain Province of Northern Luzon. It is 165 km. from its shipping point at San Fernando, Province of La Union, on the shore of the China Sea. Elevations at the property range from 3200 to 4500 ft. The climate is very mild; temperatures are seldom below 50° or above 80°F. Annual rainfall approaches 170 in. and is mainly confined to a rainy season lasting from May to October. The months from December to April, inclusive, are usually extremely dry. This climatic pecularity entails the problems of landslides on the roads during the rainy season and water shortage during the dry season. The Mountain Trail, an improved rock-surfaced toll road maintained by the Commonwealth Government, gives access to the property. The 105 km. over this road may be traveled in about 4 ½ hr. during the dry season. Very few sections of the road are straight for more than 100 meters, and about one third of it is a one-way road controlled by gates. All freight for the property is delivered by the Manila Railroad Company to Bauang, La Union, 45 km. west of Baguio and at sea level, where it is picked up by freight trucks and hauled via Baguio to Lepanto. Granulated matte is hauled in bulk from Lepanto in four-ton lots on freight trucks to the storage bins at San Fernando. Freight rates from Bauang to the property amount to P8.00 per ton, and from the property to San Fernando the rate is P16.00 per ton. The company pays the road toll, P1.00 per truck, each way. THE CAMP The company maintains a modern camp, well separated from the mine and reduction plant. Comfortable and sanitary living quarters, water, and light, as well as free medical service are provided all employees. A hospital staffed by a doctor and two nurses takes care of all medical treatment. Considering recreational facilities of great importance, the company has provided two tennis courts, two basketball courts, and badminton courts for employees. Bowling alleys and a motion picture theater are operated by the company, the profits being expended for other recreational purposes. A moderate sized recreation hall serves for barrio dances, meetings,

Jan 1, 1942

By W. F. Holbrook, T. L. Joseph

The problem of sulfur control is important in all blast-furnace operations but particularly for certain grades of steel because of the rigorous specifications. During the past decade the tendency has been to produce pig iron and hot metal of lower sulfur content. As most of the sulfur in the iron originates in the fuel, the use of high-sulfur coke demands modifications in practice to meet sulfur specifications. While it is generally known that high temperatures and more basic slags favor desulfurization, operators as a rule produce the most acid slag that will permit proper desulfurization. The viscosity of blastfurnace slag has been thought to be related to desulfurization and has been investigated by Feild and Roysterl, also McCaffery and his associates*, but apparently no systematic effort has been made to determine the relative desulfurizing powers of slags over the range of composition encountered in practice. Development of Testing Method Because slag and metallic iron are immiscible, the desulfurization reaction is heterogeneous, occurring only at the interfaces between slag and metal bodies. In the blast furnace the newly reduced iron, containing FeS, descends through the slag bath probably either as small drops or streams, at the interfaces of which desulfurization occurs. After its descent through the slag the iron collects to form a bath of metal, at the top surface of which desulfurization reaction probably occurs. These two steps have been thought to account for all desulfurization in the blast furnace. Kinney3 found that metal removed from the blast furnace just above the tuyeres contained three to four times as much sulfur as the iron at cast. Herty and Gaines4 conclude that most of the sulfur is removed while the metal is passing through the slag. Mund, Stoecker

Jan 1, 1936

By H. Landssberg

Subsidence caused by mining operations has been a matter of interest for the mining engineer for just 111 years, since the Belgian committee for study of subsidence in the city of Liege submitted its first report in 1825. This interest is fairly expressed in the enormous amount of literature that has since appeared on this subject. A bibliography, probably far from being complete, which preceded this study as a preliminary survey, comprises more than 800 titles. In spite of this fact the problem remains today as acute as it has ever been. The questions of as good a recovery as possible of the national resources, the safety of the operations, and the protection of private and public property are the important angles from which to look at the problem. The Problem To systematize an investigation regarding the effects of mine excavations two different aspects have to be dealt with: (1) the subsidence of the immediate roof above the workings, affecting the safety of the workers and the progress and efficiency of the operations; (2) the subsidence of the surface, which is also, from the point of time, the second event. The immense importance of surface subsidence as regards the impairment of surface structures of every kind in a mining area is self-evident. Both effects result from reactions of the strata overlying the excavations and they depend mainly on the extent of the excavations and the structure and geological condition of the strata. It has been stressed repeatedly, in this country principally by G. S. Ricel,† that for the understanding of the phenomenon of subsidence accurate surveys are the most urgent necessity. In the past, however, at least in the normal course of mining operations, these surveys have been very crude. The control of the roof in the mine is left to the observation of the behavior of the timber, warning cracks and sounds in roof and walls and to the general judgment and experience of the worker and his supervisors. In any given case this may or may not be sufficient to prevent fatalities but certainly it does not give any accurate information as to what is happening in roof and strata. On the surface, principally in endangered areas, surveys have been conducted more frequently, but also in this case usually weeks or even

Jan 1, 1936

By Raymond Mancha

The number of installations of propeller mine fans completed during the years of 1936 and 1937 is evidence of the increasing popularity of the propeller fan with the American mining industry. During the period from 1931 to 1936, there were several different low-pressure, low-efficiency propeller fans available, which filled a definite need in replacing inefficient centrifugal fans operated at comparatively low pressure by means of purchased power. Since 1936, however, the trend toward the propeller fan has greatly increased, as propeller fans are now available practically without pressure limitations and capable of efficiencies high enough to warrant replacement of efficient centrifugal fans in many instances. Few manufacturers of propeller mine fans base their fan-operating characteristics upon similar test methods, primarily because of inadequate facilities for testing in the factory and the need of a test code incorporating a calibrated duct or nozzle that makes possible the testing of large propeller fans quickly, accurately and without prohibitive expense and space requirements. As a result, fan manufacturers have resorted to various methods for testing large propeller fans in the factory, and different yardsticks have produced uncomparable and often inaccurate performance data. It is the purpose of this paper to describe and discuss in detail the test procedure of the Jeffrey Manufacturing Co., which has been proved both accurate and practical. Fig. 1 shows a plan, a side elevation and two end elevations of the test duct with a propeller fan of the exhaust type in place. Testing propeller fans exhausting permits greater accuracy than testing these fans blowing, because in the former uniform flow conditions are more easily established at Pitot tube stations where fan pressure and air-volume measurements are desired. Any residual rotation remaining in the air discharged from a propeller fan blowing into a test duct must be removed before an attempt is made to obtain accurate pressure and volume readings. Although various devices for straightening the air may be placed between the blowing fan and the volume-measuring station without resulting complications, uniform flow so obtained at the pressure-measuring station necessitates corrective calculations to compensate for duct resistance

Jan 1, 1940

By Frank G. Miller

The lower cost of producing oil from naturally flowing wells compared with pro-luction costs accruing from artificial lifting methods has stimulated much research, rith the joint purpose of extending the natural flowing life of wells and of increas-ng the productivity of small wells. The iboratory investigation described herein was made to determine the effect of a lotted liner on the pressure gradient in the icinity of the wall of a flowing well. Flow estrictions caused by the liner induce nergy losses between the oil-bearing for-lation and the inside of the liner, which lay be reduced by improved liner design, nd thereby the flow capacity of wells may e increased. These losses have been evalu-ted for rectangular slots of different sizes, nd means are suggested for reducing them. The dearth of information concerning the ature of the flow of fluids from uncon-slidated sands through small openings in he walls of. pipes—as represented by the ow of oil from an oil sand into a slotted ner—is acknowledged. Although the bene-ts to be realized by operators through the se of optimum liners is just beginning to e recognized generally, Coberlyl in 1937 ointed out that the functioning of screen is is an important factor in the pro-uction of oil. From his study on the :lection of size of oil strings for wells in California, Parks2 concluded, in part, that the perforated section of the oil string deserves continued study, especially with respect to the selection of perforations. The growing use of gravel packing resulting from certain research findings lends even more significance to the problem of selecting optimum liners, as the application of these methods usually requires slotted liners or other kinds of perforated liners. The present study was made to obtain further information for the guidance of engineers and operators in selecting slotted liners and to develop a laboratory method that may be used in analyzing possible pressure conditions surrounding most types of perforated casings used in producing oil wells, so that the present inadequate fund of knowledge on this important subject may be expanded. Discussion of ProbleM At the beginning of the investigation the following assumptions were made regarding bottom-hole conditions of a producing oil well and the oil-sand reservoir it penetrates: (I) Conditions of steady-state flow exist, (') a a homogeneous liquid is being produced) (3) no contaminating material (such as drilling fluid) is present between the liner and the face of the oil-bearing sand, (4) the well is vertical and completely penetrates a horizontal sand stratum of uniform thickness occurring between two impermeable strata, and (5) the flow is wholly viscous. If the foregoing assumptions are made, with the added requirements that the sand

Jan 1, 1941

By C. H. Herty

Almost every metallurgist who has given the Howe Memorial Lecture has had a personal contact with the distinguished gentleman to whose honor this hour is devoted. Unfortunately for me, such personal contacts were not possible. However, in the preparation of a thesis on the open-hearth process, one of my earliest tasks was to make a survey of the literature, and it was from Professor Howe's Metallurgy of Iron and Steel that I drew a number of references to previous work which formed the foundation for my reading. In his volume there is such a complete exposition of the then current thought on the subject of slags and on their role in the elimination of phosphorus from steel that I feel no hesitation in discussing in this Howe Lecture the subject of "Slag Control." In the present era of close specification, the drive for uniformity of product, and the close inspection of the product and of the cost sheet, the utmost efforts must be made to control the steelmaking variables to the best advantage of the steel producer. One of the major variables is the slag in the furnace and its effect upon the composition and quality of the metal. What advantages are to be gained from slag control? In the broad sense the advantages must be tremendous, because the very foundations of good steel melting are based on "shaping up" the slag to a point where, with proper temperature, the heat is ready for the final additions. Every melter works toward these ends through his experience with innumerable heats of steel. The elimination of undesirable constituents such as phosphorus and sulphur is entirely a matter of slag composition and physical nature, a point well known for over half a century. The role played by the slag in assisting in proper heat transfer from roof and flame to the steel has been equally well known. In more recent years there has come the problem of oxygen control in the more accurate gauging of additions for making high-grade rimmed steel for the new strip mills, and in the deoxidizing additions for grain-size control and cleanliness of forging steels, both carbon and alloy. In this problem the oxidizing characteristics of the slag are of prime importance.

Jan 1, 1940

By F. B. Plummer, R. B. Newcome

The practice of introducing acid into oil wells to increase production of oil and gas has been in use since 1894, when it was first used in the Pennsylvania oil fields30.‡ It is only since 1928 that it has been used to any extent in the Mid-Continent18. The process has proved successful in increasing production, at least temporarily, in depleted oil fields where the producing formation is highly calcareous and where water drive is not too pronounced. In the Zwolle field in Louisiana, where the producing horizon is a chalk, increases of 100 per cent have been recorded25. In north-central Texas, where the oil is produced from the Marble Falls limestone, equally pronounced increases have resulted3. The production also in some fields yielding oil from quartz sand cemented with calcitc has been benefited. The evidence of actual increase in total recovery of oil, however, has been questioned by some engineers18. It has been pointed out that the results of the treatment of a well in a now district, where the process has never been tried out, can never be predicted with certainty, since other factors besides percentage of calcareous content of the oil sand play a large part in determining the success of the method. Numerous articles have been published on acid treatment and on the effects of acid on limestone1-35, yet very little has been written concerning experimental work on the actual effect of acid on capillary pores and larger oil-coated voids of oil sands. This is due partly to difficulties in duplicating field conditions in a laboratory and partly to the fact that the process has been carried out largely by contracting companies that have been unwilling to publish details of their results for fear of loss of business to competitors. The authors, using equipment developed to measure the radial permeability of oil-sand cores2', have developed a method of investigating the results of acid treatment which has enabled them to test numerous cores and to study in some detail the action of acid on the different types of rocks, particularly fine-grained rocks.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. H. Mathewson, H. l. Burghoff

The study of the creep of metals under conditions of prolonged loading has received the attention of many investigators for several years and almost innumerable papers have been published on the various aspects of the subject. As it appeared that much could still be learned from a study of single crystals, the present work was carried out to study the effects of temperature and conditions of loading upon the properties and deformation in tension of single crystals of alpha brass containing about 70 per cent copper and go per cent zinc. In particular, it was hoped to obtain information from tests below and above the recrys-tallization temperature of the material, so that properties such as elastic limit, yield point or critical stress, and manner of deformation might be compared for tensile tests at an ordinary loading rate and for prolonged loading. Accordingly, short-time tensile tests and creep tests were made at room temperature, 300°, 500° and 700°F. The two latter temperatures are above the lowest possible recrystallization temperature of polycrys-talline 70-30 brass. Previous Work Clarke and White1 have made creep tests of some copper-zinc alloys, including 70-30 brass, and copper-zinc-tin alloys at temperatures both below and above the recrystallization temperature of the materials considered. Hanson and Wheeler2 have studied the flow and fracture of single crystals of aluminum for short-time and prolonged tensile loading over a range of temperature extending from room temperature to 400°F., their experiments being made without consideration of the orientations of the test specimens. Extensive creep and fracture tests on single crystals of lead at room temperature have been made by Betty3 and by Baker, Betty and Moore." Results of the last-named investigation were published while the present work was in progress. Miller5 examined the elastic limit of zinc single crystals at and above room temperature by means of creep tests, while Miller and Milligan6 reported the results of tests designed to show the influence of temperature on elastic limit of single crystals of aluminum, silver and zinc. The behavior of iron crystals under static tensile loading at room temperature was reported by Gensamer and Meh17 while the present investigation was in progress. Their specimens exhibited a well-defined yield point, below which no appreciable creep could be detected. The manner of yielding proved interesting, as the shape of the creep-time curve for the iron crystals differed from the common type of crcep curves. Elongation did not begin immediately, or at least was initially very slow. The rate of elongation then increased continuously and finally decreased to zero. This S-shaped type of elongation-time

Jan 1, 1941

By James A. Lewis

It is the purpose of this paper to show the importance of sand characteristics, when combined with other physical data, in evaluating production obtained by secondary recovery operations, and to indicate the benefits to be gained from the application of these principles to primary production. Introduction During the past 10 years there has been a growing interest within the industry regarding the movement of fluids through oil reservoirs. A number of research projects have been directed toward the development of the physical laws governing this movement. In the period 1933 to the present, correlations between laboratory analysis of cores, reservoir fluids and well performance have been established and have been applied to successful secondary water-flooding recovery operations; and to the completion, production, reconditioning and evaluation of wells in new fields. The application of these data to water-flooding, either natural or artificial, is comparatively new, but the principlcs involved were set forth in 1880 by John F. Carll,1 who said: The flooding of an oil district is generally viewed as a great calamity, yet it may be questioned whether a larger amount of oil cannot be drawn from the rocks in that way than by any other, for it is certain that all the oil can-not be drawn from the reservoir without admission of something to take its place. If one company owned all of the wells drawing upon a pool, and had accurate records of the depth and characteristics of the oil producing stratum in each well, it is quite possible that some system might be devised by which water could be let down through certain shafts, and thus the rocks be completely voided of oil and left full of water. As it is, however, no systematized plan of action can be adopted. The careless handling of one well. by which water is let down to the oil rock, may spoil several others belonging to different parties. A clashing of interests at once arises and is likely to result in disaster to the whole district. In judging of the probable effects of the intro-duction of water into any particular oil district several things are to be considered. (1st) The time of flooding—whether early in the progress of development, while yet a large percentage of oil remains unexhausted or at a later period after the supply has suffered from long continued depletion. (2nd) The structure of the rock—whether regular and homogeneous throughout, or composed of fine sand inter. bedding connected and irregular layers of gravel, sometimes lying near the top and at others near the bottom. (3rd) The shape of the area being flooded. (4th) The position of the point at which water is admitted. in relation to the location of the surrounding wells still pumping oil. (5th) The height (which governs the pressure) of the column of water obtaining admittance. (6th) The duration of the water supply. Although we may take exception to part of Carll's reasoning, particularly " and thus the rocks be completely voided of oil and left full of water," we must give him credit for pointing out the increased effectiveness of water encroachment in displacing oil from a sand and for his recording six of the present seven considerations necessary for evaluation of production of oil by water

Jan 1, 1942

By V. H. Wilhelm

The year 1941 in the California oil industry was marked by an increased market demand, drilling activity, and production of crude oil. Although seven new oil fields and two gas fields were discovered during the year, additions to reserves from these discoveries, as well as extensions and revaluations of previous discoveries, were approximately 100 million barrels, as against estimated withdrawals of 230,233,000 barrels. The year was remarkable for the very great increase in domestic demand for all products, which more than compensated for the loss in shipments to Japan, which averaged 60,041 bbl. Per day during 1940. Demand in terms of crude during 1941 was 648,967 bbl. per day as against 632,647 for the same period in 1940. This abnormal increase in demand is due to increased industrial activity, and especially increased railroad activity. Gasoline consumption for 1941 was 241,011 bbl. per day as against 217,744 in 1940. Demand for fuel oil increased from 259,806 bbl. per day in 1940 to 285,896 in 1941, and caused a withdrawal from stocks of more than 7,473,000 barrels. During 1941, total oil storage declined 9,153,000 bbl., but additions to storage of 1,754,000 bbl. of light oil and light oil products were offset by a withdrawal of 10,907,000 bbl. of heavier products. Production during the year is estimated at 230,233,000 bbl. as against 222,784,386 bbl. for 1940. TraNsportation For a short time, California was affected by lack of transportation due to the diversion of tankers. This shortage affected the movement of oil from the Sari Joaquin mated to the refineries, since a large percentage of this production is moved to the coast through pipe lines, and thence by tankers to Los Angeles and San Fran-,iSco, Return of the tanker fleet, which may be temporary, indicates that there is a possibility of ample supplies of petroleum products in the Pacific Northwest. Drilling Activity Contrary to general opinion, drilling activity increased in 1941 over the pre-vious Year, 942 wells being completed in 1941 as against 890 in 1940, an increase Of 6 per cent. This increase was due to the increased demands for fuel oil, and also to the decreased drilling costs, which made many former marginal locations economic. The main activity caused by increased demands for fuel oil was in the Mt. Poso, McKittrick, Midway and Santa Maria Valley oil fields. Dry-hole footage in 1941 was 655,354 ft. as against 583,537 ft. for 1940. Curtailment Voluntary curtailment succeeded in holding production considerably below demand, although it was above the state quota. During the year the top allotment

Jan 1, 1942

By David B. Reger

The expansion of the previously discovered gas pools and an intensified search for additional pools in the Oriskany and deeper sands were the principal petroleum activities in West Virginia during 1941. One small oil pool was discovered and another was considerably extended. One small gas pool was discovered, several isolated well discoveries were expanded into definite pools, and various recognized pools were substantially increased. The proved oil territory of the state was increased about 600 acres and the proved gas territory about 45,000 acres. The new discoveries of oil did not equal withdrawals but gas reserves added were greater than gas withdrawals. Oil activity, as in the past several years, was slight because of unfavorable crude prices. Most operators prefer to leave oil in the ground rather than to drill for it without a better return. Gas activity increased greatly because of better demand, even though the price of gas did not improve. The account of operations, as gathered from trade journals and other reporting services, shows that 838 new wells were drilled, resulting in 114 new oil wells with 2606 bbl. of daily new production; 558 new gas wells with 949,226,000 cu. ft. of daily open flow; and 166 dry holes. Also, 86 old wells were drilled to deeper sands with 9 bbl. and 56,030,000 cu. ft. of added production. On the new wells the oil average was 22.86 bbl. per well per day; and the gas average was 1,701,000 cu. ft. per well per day. On new wells the ratio of dry holes to completions was 13.61 per cent. On deeper drilling to other sands the ratio of failures was 15.12 per cent. From an exploratory standpoint one strictly new oil pool (Higginbotham Run) was opened in Kanawha County and one strictly new gas pool (Lost Run) in Taylor County. One entirely isolated wildcat gave commercial Oriskany-sand gas production and may open a pool. Various other wildcats greatly extended the boundaries of known Oriskany-sand gas pools and various others may have opened new pools in the shallow sands. On the other hand, various Oriskany tests in Harrison, Monongalia, Roane and Wood Counties were dry and all five tests to the White Clinton sand (Sil.) in Boone, Harrison, Kanawha and Wood Counties failed to find commercial production. The principal oil wells completed, by counties, were: Calhoun, 24; Clay, 7; Gilmer, 6; Hancock, 9; Kanawha, 9; Pleasants, 10; and Ritchie, 14. Production for the year was estimated by the Oil Weekly as 3,421,000 bbl., compared with U. S. Bureau of Mines final figures of 3,444,000 bbl. in 1940. The leading counties in gas-well completions were: Boone, 32; Braxton, 19; Cabell, 16; Calhoun, 46; Clay, 20; Gilmer, 37; Jackson, 94; Kanawha, 82; Lincoln, 17; Putnam, 46; Ritchie, 33; Upshur, 20; and Wayne, 33. Production for the year is estimated by the author as 210,000,000,000 cu. ft., as compared to the U. S. Bureau of Mines' final figures of 188,751,000,000 cu. ft.* in 1940.

Jan 1, 1942

By K. R. Van Horn, L. W. Kempf

Plastic deformation of most commercia1 metals within a sufficiently low temperature range results in profound changes in structure and properties, of which the causes and effects are not completely understood. One of these effects is the presence of internal residual stresses and strains, which ordinarily do not appear to require specific consideration in most structural applications but which may be quite undesirable in particular instances. For example, in heavy sections that require considerable machining before assembly, residual stresses may be undesirable because of the distortion they cause when their balance is disturbed by machining or otherwise. In addition, the distribution of stresses may be such that it acts in the same direction as the applied load, thus bringing about premature failure or reducing the load-carrying capacity of the member. One source of residual stress in metal structures is the plastic deformation that may occur during rapid cooling from relatively elevated temperatures, as in the cooling of a casting in the mold or the quenching of a heavy section from elevated temperatures during heat-treatment. These residual stresses are usually undesirable because their direction of operation and magnitude cannot be controlled well enough to permit utilization of the changes in properties of the metal that they may bring about. The most convenient manner of controlling such residual stress is by proper selection of the cooling rate or by reheating to a temperature at which plastic flow can take place, resulting in relief of the residual stresses and strains. Both of these methods of control, however, may cause a reduction in the optimum properties obtainable from the previous operation. A compromise must be struck, and if it is to result in the best possible combinations of properties, specific information must be available regarding the magnitude of the stresses and the rate at which they are affected by variations in cooling rate or in reheating temperature. The complete quantitative estimation of residual stress in complicated metal shapes is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. In simple sections, however, relatively quantitative analysis may be applied and useful cstimations of stress distribution may be made. This paper is concerned largely with the rate of relief, upon reheating, of internal residual stress in simple aluminum-alloy structures. Since even with simple structures quantitative estimation of residual stresses is laborious and costly, an attempt was made to find other means of collecting data upon which commercial heat-treatments might be based. Incidentally, a few data were collected bearing on the problem of relaxation of aluminum alloys. Determination of Residual Stresses The magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in simple aluminum-alloy shapes rapidly cooled from elevated temperatures has been discussed in a previous paper.' Fig. I reproduces some of the data

Jan 1, 1942

By Hugh S. Spence

The use of natural feldspathic rocks, as opposed to straight feldspar, for ceramic purposes is not new. "Cornwall stone," a semi-kaolinized granite containing fluorite, has long been used by the English pottery trade instead of feldspar, and "Carolina stone," a similar rock, is now being offered to the American trade. A recent report of the U. S. Bureau of Mines states that trachyte, a glassy volcanic rock, is being used in California instead of feldspar in ceramic bodies. In Germany, phonolite and basalt have been investigated, and possibly also used, as ceramic raw materials, and extensive research has been conducted in Russia in recent years looking to the utilization of the immense bodies of nepheline syenite of the Kola Peninsula, which is the host rock of the apatite deposits now being exploited on a large scale in the Murmansk region; the nepheline is recovered as a by-product of the concentration of the apatite. Long used principally as a raw material for the pottery and allied industries, where, in bodies, glazes, enamels, etc., it serves as a fluxing ingredient and forms, on firing, a glassy bond with the more refractory clay, flint and coloring particles, feldspar has been finding ever increasing employment in glass. In 1936, over half of the nearly quarter of a million tons of feldspar sold in the United States went to the glass trade. Its usefulness for this purpose is due to the resistance to thermal shock which it imparts to glass products, particularly bottles, containers and tableware, because of its alumina content, which averages from 16 to 20 per cent. Active search has been wade on the American continent during the past few years for other minerals of feldspathoid type, with comparable or higher alumina content, that, may be suitable for glass and other ceramic purposes. One of the most important results of this work has been the delimiting in central Ontario of large bodies of nepheline syenite of excellent, ceramic grade.

Jan 1, 1942

By D. P. Morton

Since 1923, which closed the speculative era in the bituminous coal fields of the United States, there have been wide annual fluctuations in the national production of bituminous coal. These changes in annual output have been variously attributed to: (1) increased competition from petroleum products, natural gas and hydroelectric power; (2) lower unit consumption of coal; and (3) fluctuations in the general business level. The purpose of this paper is to measure, from a practical standpoint, the net effect upon the annual trend of bituminous coal production, and to give those who are interested a basis for estimating in advance the probable output of bituminous coal. It can readily be shown that changes in the level of general business affect the national production of bituminous coal more than does any other factor. Therefore it is necessary to use some standard measure of the relative business level for purposes of comparison. The Federal Reserve Board Index of Industrial Production offers the basis for such a measure.l This Index, a weighted composite of 81 different series, rests upon the averages of the years 1935 to 1939 as 100, and is presented graphically in Fig. I. Even a cursory examination of the chart will indicate a definite uptrend for industrial production over a period of years. This uptrend is due to at least two factors: (I) an actual increase in national population, and (2) a probable increase in the per capita consumption of goods. This means that there is no such thing as a fixed Normal, rather Normal is a variable, tending to increase from year to year. In order to measure the amount of annual increase in normal, the Index of Industrial Production must be studied in relation to its major components, Durable Goods and Nondurable Goods, Durable Goods are those made from the lasting materials such as iron, steel, other metals, lumber, stone, cement, clay, glass. Nondurable Goods are those for early consumption, such as foods, textiles, tobacco, chemicals, paper, gasoline, and goods made of leather and rubber. The purchase of Durable Goods may be postponed, but Nondurable Goods must be purchased currently unless the standard of living is lowered. The Federal Reserve Indexes of durable and nondurable goods are shown graphically, 1920 to 1939, on Fig. a (pp. 764-765 of ref. I). It is apparent that fluctuations in the production of nondurable goods are not nearly so wide as in the production of durable goods, and that the curve of Industrial Production (Fig. I) would fall between the two curves on Fig. 2. It would, however, seem logical that both curves should follow the same long-term trend, or that over a period of two to three decades the relative proportion of durable and nondurable goods, in periods of normal production, should be the same. It is neces-

Jan 1, 1942

By Paul L. Burkhart

THOUGH at an earlier period brief studies had been made by the Lehigh Navigation Coal Company Inc., it was not until 1924 that J. B. Warriner, then general manager, called for a comprehensive study of timber treatment, treating solutions, and related operations. Because of the impossibility of procuring accurate costs and other pertinent treating data, the American Wood Preserving Co. agreed to treat a car of mine timber at the Port Reading plant of the Reading Railroad. Fig. I shows the treating data collected at the treating plant on this timber, which was installed in two of the Lehigh mines in 1925. Table i.—Results of Timber Survey in 1925 before Treated Timber Was Introduced Length of tunnels and gangways ft..... 522,987a Length of tunnels and gangways timbered, ft.................................. 224.880 Number of steel mine sets in use......... 2,412 Number of timber sets in use............ 63,834 Number of timber sets with evidence of rot 50: 419 Number of timber sets with evidence of squeeze..... ...................... I3,415 Percentage of all timber sets showing evidence of failure: BY wet rot........................ 6.0 By dry rot........................ 73.0 By squeeze....................... : Average life of wood set in Panther Valley, years............................... 5.3 • 99.05 miles. In the latter part of 1925, a survey of the tunnels and gangways of the company's Panther Valley mines was made to determine the proportion of gangways or tunnels timbered, cause of timber failures, approximate life of the average wood set and the approximate percentage of treated timber that it would be profitable for the company to use. Results of this survey appear in Table I. Because of the high percentage of timber that gave evidence of failure by rot, as noted in Table I, and a further study of the life of the sections where timbering was necessary, it was deemed advisable to fill 25 per cent of the yearly gangway timber requirement with treated timber. Quantities and Treatments OF Treated Timber Purchased In the early days of the program, none of the large treating companies would accept orders for small quantities of treated timber and the company was compelled to state the quantity of timber it would require at each operation in each month of the year. Table 2 is an example of the tabulation given to the various treating companies to assist them in making a yearly bid on the minimum quantity of timber required by the company during the year 1931. A bill of timber was calculated for each car, the weight of which would be between the minimum and maximum weight permitted for railroad-car loading. The treating company was paid for timber upon delivery at the operation specified. As extra cars of timber were required, they were ordered from the treating company, and payment was required On their receipt, on the basis of the piece or tonnage

Jan 1, 1942