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By D Kay, M Lovitt

Mass Blasts are generally required at the completion of longhole stoping cycles to maximise the recovery of ore from a specific orebody. During the course of mining, the practice is to leave pillars of ore to support the opening left by extracted ore and to mitigate stresses from working areas of the stope. These pillars usually contain ore that has been included in the resource evaluation and is highly valuable to the mining operation. Due to their stressed nature, the removal of pillars by conventional blasting techniques, through small blasts, can result in pillars being reduced beyond their critical size and ultimately failing, rendering the ore unrecoverable. The AurionGold Kanowna Belle Gold Mine operates a Mine to Mill philosophy. This philosopy requires the fine tuning of blasting to provide the best possibe ore feed at the highest grade for mill productivity. This means that ore to the mill must be well fragmented from blasting that provides high extraction rates from draw points, with minimal dilution from overbreak or fall off, and sized to maximise SAG mill throughput. The AT04 Mass Blast contained significant ore reserves which were required to meet gold production targets. KBGB needed the AT04 Mass Blast to perform as well as if not better than conventional stope blasts to maintain mill production. This paper describes the circumstances, planning philosophy, techniques, including the use of Electronic Initiation Systems and Bulk Emulsion Explosives, and results that provided a highly successful outcome.

Jan 1, 2002

By Y D. Jeon, K S. Kim, C-H Eom, C M. Yoon

The carbon neutrality continues to require reduction of carbon usage in ironmaking and steelmaking processes. Specially, it is expected that the hot metal ratio (HMR) in the steelmaking process should be reduced essentially. Unfortunately, the reduction of the HMR in converter can bring about poor environment for nitrogen removal from molten Fe. From this situation, nitrogen prediction model has been developed to understand the fundamental of behaviour of nitrogen and quantitatively interpret its content changes in the converter process. Thermodynamic and kinetic approaches were improved based on existing mathematical model and attempted to predict nitrogen content in realtime by combining process data. In present study, heat supply from the oxidation (mainly carbon and silicon) and CO evolution in the converter are considered, and scrap melting due to the heat transfer from the molten Fe to the solid scrap charged in the converter also be considered.

Aug 21, 2024

By H Lehtonen, H Mansikkaviita

In primary copper smelters, the received copper concentrate and other materials contain a certain amount of moisture, ranging from six to 14 per cent. Moisture in wet concentrate has a negative effect on the performance of the smelting furnaces when it is fed directly to the furnaces, namely increasing the energy consumption and the off-gas flow. There are several drying technologies available for drying copper concentrate, varying from direct heated rotary dryers and flash dryers to indirect heated steam dryers. Application of steam dryers has changed the drying process for copper smelters. Produced from a waste heat boiler, steam as heating medium enables plant-wide heat utilisation. Fossil fuel used from outside sources to remove water is no longer required and the combustion chamber is not required. In addition special attention has been paid to overcome the known problems of pollution emissions, excessive wear, clogging and frequent maintenance. The Kumera steam dryer is featured with many advantages based on principal improvements in reducing tube element wear and increasing drying efficiency. Thus, it has been considered as the first choice for those smelters where steam is available.

Jan 1, 2006

By G Balog, T Ormerod, D Cox

This paper discusses the methods utilised by the technical team to identify and quantify the SLC risk factors, the modifications to mine design and scheduling, and the changes to the planned risk management practices. The paper also describes the future work currently planned by the OZ Minerals technical team to quantify the various risk factors in terms of space, time and magnitude. This may better inform the future mining practices within not only the Carrapateena province but also the wider Gawler Craton.

Mar 15, 2021

By D Cliff, K Bailey

Traditionally occupational health and safety (OH&S) has been managed for the direct benefits of reducing injury and illness to workers on mine sites. In the current skill shortage climate it is important to recognise the value that OH&S management can have in assisting mines in minimising their exposure to this issue. In times of skills shortage turnover is high as mines poach personnel from each other. This leads to loss of corporate knowledge and loss in productivity through the need to train new personnel in mine-specific operating procedures. In addition absenteeism can significantly disrupt production as there may be no ready replacements available for key jobs. Pressure will be placed upon workers to remain at work even though they are not completely fit for work, leading to presenteeism and consequently loss in productivity. In addition to the threats to routine operation, the loss of management and professional staff can significantly increase catastrophic risk through loss of experience and corporate knowledge. There is increased pressure to focus on events that occur regularly in the here and the now and underestimate the rare, or unlikely, events.The theme of this paper is that by properly addressing OH&S management at mine sites, companies can minimise their exposure to these problems. Put simplistically, a safe and healthy mine is a sustainable and productive mine. Case studies and relevant literature will be used to support this premise.CITATION:Cliff, D and Bailey, K, 2012. Health, safety and sustainability, in Proceedings International Mine Management 2012, pp 53-58 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 20, 2012

By A Chadwick, J de Ross, C Adams

Imagine a æshinyÆ new mine, $1 B in the bank and record commodity prices. So how does a company and its management team create enough tension to maximise profit and to establish a culture that can weather the good and bad times?That was exactly the situation the team at OZ MineralsÆ world class Prominent Hill mine in South Australia faced in 2009.Three years later, the harder times have come - lower though still healthy commodity prices, rising industry costs, fierce competition for talent, geological and technical issues (common to developing mines). However, the company was able to maximise profit during the good times and equip the culture to deal with the tougher times with minimal turnover.Through the combination of simple systems and processes, people development, application of commercial technical acumen and a combination of yin and yang leadership, OZ Minerals has achieved something quite rare - sustainable continuous improvement.The journey started with a vision. The EGM Operations created the æsparkÆ. The dream was to create a æfranchise mineÆ that could be rolled out to new mines and acquisitions as the company grew. However, the real leadership came from his lieutenants who provided the important yin and yang. The GM commercial provided the tools, processes, systems and the bottom line focus. The GM operations focused on culture, leadership, training and sustainability. This powerful combination (along with some good old persistence) was able to create the critical mass required to make continuous improvement go æviralÆ.This paper explores this unique case to uncover the essential ingredients that were created and mixed together. It will touch on the key human, technical and system elements that helped achieve significant improvements in plant recoveries, mine throughput and operational efficiencies, while overcoming human capacity, geotechnical and contractual challenges.CITATION:de Ross, J, Chadwick, A and Adams, C, 2012. How to create a perfect storm, in Proceedings International Mine Management 2012, pp 239-250 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 20, 2012

By J A. Braithwaite

Social licence to operate is not a new concept for the mining industry, referring to stakeholder approval or acceptance for the activities and impacts of a project, company or industry. It is intangible, dynamic and non-permanent, hence it needs to be earned and then maintained (Thomson and Boutilier, 2014). It has also been argued that social licence extends beyond building approval or acceptance, into engagement for long-term development (Owen and Kemp, 2012).There are many examples where stakeholder opposition – or withdrawal of social licence – have increased capital and operating costs, extended schedules and impacted reputation. At its extreme, the withdrawal of social licence to operate can also contribute to or be the catalyst for mine closure.The key benefit of obtaining a social licence is a reduction of risk. Stakeholder support and advocacy, as well as the implementation of social performance programs that contribute to social licence, can be beneficial in terms of schedule, costs and other benefits.While decisions to close a mine are generally driven by resource availability or economic conditions, the social, economic and environmental legacy remaining post-closure is of importance to many stakeholders. With a number of significant mines now approaching closure within Australia, we are seeing heightened community concern about the economic and social impact of mine closure and the success of land rehabilitation. So how does the concept of social licence to operate extend into the closure phase of the mining life cycle?CITATION:Braithwaite, J A, 2016. Social licence to close?, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2016 Conference, pp 176–179 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jun 28, 2016

The optimisation and validation of shearer cutting methods is a time consuming engineering task. Many different parameters, of which not all can be controlled, can vary. The easiest solution, to increase the installed power and the longwall length, is not always the best. A different cutting method can increase the capacity without the need of new machines. The Department for Mining and Metallurgy Machinery at RWTH Aachen University therefore developed ProSL, the simulation tool for shearer and longwall operations. ProSL enables the engineer to create his own cutting methods and compare it with other methods. Machine-data can easily be varied to see the impact on the method. The research shows that sophisticated longwall methods increase the productivity of the system. The paper presents the results of the calculation with ProSL and shows how higher efficiency and lower costs can be achieved.

Dec 6, 2010

By F Grobler

Many projects fail because project performance in unfavourable economic conditions was not anticipated at the investment decision stage. This type of failure may have been avoided through the selection of a strategy that enables the project to perform well under a range of possible future economic conditions (a ærobustÆ strategy); rather than an æoptimalÆ strategy for expected future conditions that will never eventuate. This paper describes a method of rapidly generating mine plans for a number of project strategies, and then evaluating it against a representative range of equally likely economic conditions. The key performance indicators derived for each strategy are the mean value and the distribution of values (variance). A prudent investor will identify prospective strategies not only on the merit of highest mean values (as a proxy for economic reward), but also on the probability of not meeting specified investment hurdles (a proxy for risk). A robust strategy will achieve its financial objective even under adverse economic variations. This paper focuses on the effect of commodity price uncertainty; particularly around the choice of mining and processing capacity levels. Results from enumerating 2000 prices scenarios against 63 strategy combinations show how processing and mining capacity can be manipulated to manage the risk-reward trade-off.

Sep 26, 2011

By P Velletri, N Gaylard

The management of wear surfaces in mining operations has remained largely unchanged since the inception of mining. Sacrificial wear liners are installed on the inside of chutes, hoppers and other equipment used to transfer bulk ore to protect the asset from abrasive wear caused by the flow of material. These liners are generally replaced at fixed intervals which may be determined based on historical wear rates or may be driven by other maintenance requirements for that asset. This approach does not always yield satisfactory results, especially for critical assets where the impact of downtime on production can be substantial. For such assets, a condition-based maintenance strategy has the potential to significantly increase productivity and reduce the total cost of ownership associated with the asset. However, for such a strategy to be successful, timely information on the actual condition (remaining thickness) of the wear liners is essential. This paper describes the development and implementation of a wear monitoring system that can be used to remotely and continuously report on remaining liner material thickness in real time. It details some of the challenges that were overcome when developing the system, including the design of a patented thickness measuring system that can be used in a variety of liner materials and is tolerant to the presence of ore on the wear surface. The paper also explains how a cloud-based approach enables data from the wear sensors to be integrated into external systems such as a data historian, which has been demonstrated through a collaborative project with one of the largest iron ore producers in the Pilbara. This ability to combine real time liner thickness information with other data sources, such as throughput, provides the foundation for the transition to a condition-based maintenance strategy.

Nov 8, 2021

By Q Yu, G Ren, Z-Y Chen, J Yang

The wedge shape theory of the rock fragmentation range in bench blasting is presented according to the dynamic characteristics of rock fragmentation by blasting in open pit under the condition of hole-by-hole initiation. The finite element software ABAQUS was used to analyse the rock fragmentation mechanism. The rock mass stress contours, crack propagation and damage evolution of different moments were obtained. The results showed that the wedge shape theory of blasting is closer to the rock fragmentation in hole-by-hole blasting and is useful to the design and calculation of charge weight.CITATION:Yang, J, Chen, Z-Y, Yu, Q and Ren, G, 2015. The wedge theory of borehole charge design for bench blasting and its numerical simulation, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 169–176 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By I Ritchie, A Johnston, D Yataco

Marcobre SAC (Marcobre) is developing the Mina Justa copper mine project, located in the Ica region of Peru. The Mina Justa IOCG orebody comprises of a sulfide mass overlain by an oxide cap with a sharp transitional zone between the sulfide and oxide masses. The primary target metal is copper, but there are minor amounts of gold and silver. The oxide will be treated by HPGR, crushing and vat leaching, whereas the sulfide will be treated by HPGR, milling and froth flotation. The processing selections are due to some unusual ore characteristics which have required relatively unconventional solutions.Vat leaching was chosen over heap leaching and other processes after detailed trade-off studies found it to be the most attractive, primarily due to the high acid consumption of the ore. The sulfide flotation produces a wide range of concentrate grades due to the complex nature of the mineralogy. The selection of HPGR circuits for both the oxide and sulfide ore is due to the extremely hard and competent nature of the deposit. These factors and others have contributed to a unique process selection for this resource.The selection process for the oxide and sulfide ores, and an overview of the technology, equipment selection and geometallurgy, will be discussed.CITATION:Johnston, A, Ritchie, I and Yataco, D, 2017. Process development for the Mina Justa project, in Proceedings MetPlant 2017, pp 207–217 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 11, 2017

By D Cliff

"Recent underground coal mine incidents have again raised the issue of: under what circumstanceis it safe for personnel to re-enter the mine? Mine rescue guidelines make recommendations aboutthe limits in terms of the circumstances, lives at risk, no lives at risk and training exercises. Theseare based upon percentages of the upper and lower explosive limits. Many factors infl uencesett ing limits for safe re-entry. These include: the representativeness of the sampling location(s),the rapidity of gett ing an underground sample analysed and the rate of change of the atmospherebeing monitored. Value judgements based upon these parameters will then infl uence the sett ing ofa trigger point based upon per cent explosibility. This raises the question of how the percentage ofthe lower or upper explosive limit is established. It is easy to defi ne this when the sampling pointdata sit on the fresh air limit line. However - what value is used when the sample sits somewherein the body of an explosibility diagram? This paper explores the various options and illustratesvarious pitfalls and problems that are faced in making such a determination. These include howthe data are represented and the assumed knowledge of those doing the interpretation."

Jun 1, 2012

By A Bagis

Road tunnels are an accepted and effective transportation solution in urban areas to mitigate increasing traffic congestion and facilitate improved urban connectivity in a cost effective manner while meeting societal goals to reduce the impact of construction. In designing a tunnel system, there is a requirement to achieve an acceptable level of in-tunnel air quality, as well as meeting ambient air quality goals. In Australia, there is also a requirement for zero portal emissions which means that all pollutants must be emitted to the atmosphere via a ventilation stack.Traditionally, effective pollutant dispersion has been achieved by constructing tall ventilation stacks which disperse pollutants into the atmosphere at a high level. The dominant variable parameters in the effectiveness of the dispersion under the ventilation engineers control are the efflux velocity, the height of the ventilation outlet and the concentration of pollutants at the point of discharge. During off-peak operations the required ventilation exhaust rate can be reduced due to the decrease in traffic. This can lead to a drop in the efflux velocity from the stack and therefore the effectiveness of the dispersion. This potentially drives the need for a higher outlet, or an increased exhaust rate to achieve a higher efflux velocity with consequent effects on energy consumption.The paper proposes a method of varying the cross-sectional area of the ventilation stack with the use of motorised control dampers, thereby maintaining a sufficiently high efflux velocity throughout the 24 hour period independent of traffic conditions. This allows the use of a potentially shorter ventilation stack.

Mar 8, 2011

By C Taylor, E Retz

Sequential Gaussian conditional simulation of wide-spaced exploration data has been completed in order to optimise a drilling grid at Fortescue’s Eliwana deposit. The aim of this drill grid is to improve the confidence in the Inferred Mineral Resource. A mineralised domain within the Joffre Member of the Brockman Iron Formation was selected to be tested as it makes up a large proportion of the Inferred Mineral Resource and is drilled at a reasonable spacing.One hundred realisations of Fe, SiO2 and Al2O3 grades were completed in the domain. Three realisations were selected for each analyte to represent the range of equiprobable values and a further realisation was selected to represent the truth data set. These realisations were used to flag theoretical drill holes on varying spacings and patterns. The theoretical drill holes were used to estimate into block models using ordinary kriging.These estimates were analysed and the accuracy and precision of each drill spacing was assessed. It was concluded that the greatest improvement in estimation results was noted at either a 100 m × 50 m or 50 m × 50 m spacing.CITATION:Taylor, C and Retz, E, 2015. How much do we need to drill?, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 491–500 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By S K. Panda, M A. Van Ende, S Chatterjee

Tata Steel Netherlands (TSN) aims to reduce its CO2 emissions by 35–40 per cent by 2030 and become CO2 neutral by 2045. A first step to reach these targets is via the utilisation of an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), which will run on a mixture of high proportion of Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) and scrap. For an EAF operation, optimisation of slag chemistry is important to achieve the right mix of basicity (for refining especially dephosphorisation), foaming, volume (rate) and refractory life. Slag composition and rate can vary widely depending on the process variables like charge mix, charge composition, feeding rate, oxygen lancing, external carbon injection/addition, fluxing and refractory erosion/corrosion. Moreover, it is important to note that the slag composition and rate are ‘transient’ parameters and change throughout the heat. This makes all the dependent phenomena and/or outcomes transient as well. To describe all these effects simultaneously and be able to realistically simulate the EAF operations, a validated dynamic process model is important in the absence of real plant data. In this study, a validated dynamic EAF process model based on the concept of Effective Equilibrium Reaction Zone (EERZ) has been utilised to analyse the impact of high DRI industrial scale EAF operations on the transient slag characteristics – including slag volume (rate), composition, phases, solid fraction and viscosity. Simultaneously, the model is able to predict the impact on steel and offgas characteristics. Case studies were performed with 70 per cent DRI:30 per cent scrap mix considering both low and high-grade DRI. Both melting and refining aspects of the process including continuous feeding, arcing program, carbon addition, fluxing and oxy-lancing were considered.

Jun 19, 2024

By N Power, R Hassell, E Jones

Wiluna Mining Corporation are progressively re-entering the old Wiluna underground mining complex. The existing underground was abandoned in 2013 by previous owners and left to flood with water levels reaching above the East Pit portal and Happy Jack Pit portal and up to 300 m below surface in the Bulletin underground. Re-entering the mine commenced in 2017 with dewatering of the Bulletin decline. The underground development had been previously supported with friction bolts, with weld mesh in places. Until mid-2021 rehabilitation requirements were based on an external visual inspection of the installed ground support scheme. However, several incidents involving falls of ground due to corroded bolts have occurred during this time, showing that this approach was inadequate. The challenge the operation faced was should the entire decline be rehabilitated, the implication being not only a large rehabilitation cost but also the impact of severe delays to the mining schedule. The question was asked can the operation better understand the level of corrosion damage and potentially optimise rehabilitation requirements. A proposal to use a systematic approach to assess corrosion by environmental condition mapping, visual external corrosion assessment, and internal corrosion assessment via borehole camera inspections was provided and accepted by Wiluna Mining Corporation. The objective of this work was to produce a three-dimensional map showing the degree of corrosion on the reinforcement systems in the capital infrastructure, this would then be used to risk assess and prioritise rehabilitation requirements. This paper summarises the approach, methodology and results that provided the Wiluna mine planning team with information to enable planning of resources and budget to justify priorities of rehabilitation.

Nov 29, 2022

By M Haest, O Dominguez, D Mittrup

With the current focus in the mining industry on reducing costs, while simultaneously improving ore quality, infrared spectroscopy is a tool that can potentially assist companies to meet both challenges. Changes in the nature of infrared spectra are strongly influenced by changes in mineralogy, which is a key input variable for exploration (geology and orebody modelling and ore characterisation) and mining (pit design, mine scheduling and processing plant design/management).Infrared spectroscopic logging of drill holes has been embedded as a standard tool in BHP Billiton Iron Ore exploration, with a process set up to automatically deliver mineralogy and associated imagery to the end users (typically exploration geologists). The availability of consistent and automated mineralogy drill hole logs across a project is improving the output quality and reducing re-work.BHP Billiton Iron Ore is now looking into using the same infrared spectroscopic data for other applications, including improving predictions of geometallurgical and geotechnical parameters. Trials show that addition of infrared spectroscopic data to conventional data sets (element analysis and depth information) is significantly improving the accuracy of regression models to predict the lump-fine ratio.Further initiatives around infrared spectroscopic data in BHP Billiton Iron Ore include the installation of infrared spectroscopic sensors over conveyor belts, infrared spectroscopic mine face scanning and infrared spectroscopic blasthole logging. The ultimate vision is to have consistent, seamless mineralogical data from infrared spectroscopic sensing available throughout the mineral value chain (exploration/mining/processing). This seamless infrared spectroscopic data ‘bridge’ will allow the transfer of knowledge between the different sections of the value chain (exploration, mining and processing). For example, ore handle-ability could be predicted on exploration samples using regression models built from processing plant observations. In the opposite direction, information gathered about the buried stratigraphy by infrared spectroscopy utilised during exploration, could be used to predict the stratigraphy encountered during mining. This collaboration across BHP Billiton Iron Ore is expected to deliver significant savings, while improving the quality of the final product, thus helping to drive efficiency over the next decade.CITATION:Haest, M, Mittrup, D and Dominguez, O, 2015. Reaping the first fruits – infrared spectroscopy: the new standard tool in BHP Billiton Iron Ore Exploration, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2015, pp 277–284 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 13, 2015

By R A. Pax, B Cornish

"Although it is well known and easily experienced that the feed size distribution influences the throughput and stability of operation of a semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill, the details are poorly understood since it is often only the input and output measurements that are used to identify unfavourable in-mill conditions. Load cells and power monitoring are sometimes used but are generally poor indicators of the mechanisms that lead to such unwanted conditions.At the MMG Century operation a 12-microphone array around the SAG mill using non-contact acoustic measurement methodology has been used to diagnose the in-mill conditions to facilitate improved throughput and stability of operation. Use of acoustic measurement and control has provided a demonstrated increased throughput of at least 20 per cent as well as improved stabilisation of the mill. Since the information derived from the acoustic noise from a mill allows discrimination of the behaviour of the steel balls and the rock, a number of in-mill conditions can be identified with signals that include toe and shoulder angles, water holdup and the ball to rock ratio.Feed size variations, measured online with an imaging system, have been used to determine their effect on the internal charge behaviour. It has been found that circumferential segregation of steel balls and rock occurs as well as poor mixing of large rocks. Both of these effects are not conducive to optimal breakage rates of different size fractions. Longitudinal segregation effects also occur. This paper presents and discusses these results and illustrates how the new acoustic knowledge can be used to manage and improve mill operation and stability.Citation:Pax, R and Cornish, B, 2016. Understanding Size Effects of Semi-autogenous Grinding (SAG) Mill Operation as a Pathway to Solving Feed Disturbances - Case Study using the MMG Century SAG Mill, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference 2016, pp 321–330 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Oct 10, 2016

By L Xiong, W J Shi, J H. Wei

"An EXTENDED ABSTRACT is available for download. A full-length paper was not prepared for this presentation. The Baizhangzi gold deposit is located in the northern North China Craton. The structural and lithological controls on the location and geometry of orebodies were studied through geologic survey, ore spatial configuration analysis and structural analysis. The orebodies of the deposit comprise auriferous quartz-sulfide veins and disseminated gold-bearing sulfides. The auriferous quartz-sulfide veins are dominantly hosted by the NNE- (and NE- and NW-) trending faults, which are subsidiary structures of the regional NNE-trending F2 fault. The subsidiary NNE-trending faults, having sinistral reverse kinematics, are associated with the sinistral reverse kinematics event of the F2 fault, which happened under a regional S–N-oriented compression stress field. The subsidiary NE- and NW-trending faults appear to be compressive and extensional respectively. These NE- (and NW-) trending faults are restricted to the granite intrusion and are associated with a sinistral strike-slip event of the F2 fault, which reactivated under a NW–SE-oriented compression stress field. It makes significant influence on geological evolution and distribution of different ore types that the strike of the F2 fault presents significant transition from NNE- to NE-trending in vertical. The ore-bearing disseminated host rocks, with widespread silicification and pyritisation, distribute in the lower inner contact zone of the granite intrusion, especially in the lower wavelike boundary of granite intrusion.CITATION:Xiong, L, Wei, J H and Shi, W J, 2015. Structural and lithological controls on the location of orebodies in the Baizhangzi lode gold deposit in western Liaoning Province, China, in Proceedings PACRIM 2015 Congress, pp 193–200 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 18, 2015