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By André Vervoort

After the systematic closure of Europe’s coalfields in the late twentieth century, the emphasis is now clearly on industry’s environmental legacy. One aspect of the latter is the longterm surface movement above abandoned coal mines. The analysis of satellite data shows that the subsidence lasts longer than generally assumed. However, a few years after the flooding of the abandoned underground coal mines, a new phenomenon was observed, i.e., the direction of the surface movement was reversed. The phase of upsidence has already lasted for several decades, and only future measurements will tell how long it continues. A key conclusion is that the regions with maximum subsidence do not necessarily correspond to the greatest upsidence. In other words, buildings and infrastructure are subjected to a different loading from this upsidence than during the subsidence phase. The longterm surface movements have an impact on vulnerable structures in the densely populated regions of the former deep coal mining areas in Europe. These movements create additional damage. This new knowledge is also relevant for mines that are still in operation or future mines that are planned.

Feb 1, 2024

By Ihsan Berk Tulu, Mustafa Can Suner

The synthetic rock mass (SRM) approach is a relatively new method to study the mechanical behavior of rock masses. Recently, an SRM approach was established to estimate pillar strength from laboratory scale to in-situ dimension using the two-dimensional Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC). In this study, the developed methodology is applied to the S-Pillar database to estimate pillar strength and failure mechanisms as a function of width-to-height ratio of the pillars. First, stone mine rocks are categorized into three as low-, medium-, and high-strength according to their uniaxial compressive strength (UCS). Later, laboratory-scale intact rocks are scaled-up to the average in-situ pillar dimensions by explicitly considering the naturally existing joint sets. It is found that the strength of the pillars with low-UCS are overestimated when compared to pillars with high-UCS. This observation is attributed to the high joint density of the pillars with high-UCS. After obtaining in-situ pillar strength, the width-to-height ratios of the pillar models varied from 0.5 to 2.0 to gain a robust understanding of pillar mechanical behavior. Tensile failure is found to govern the pillar behavior with the width-to-height ratio of 0.5 while the combination of tensile failure in rib elements and shear failure in the core

By C. V. Deutsch, J. B. Boisvert, M. A. Cuba

The amount of information available for characterizing a deposit increases over time due to the continuous acquisition of data during mining. This additional information is collected from different sources, including geologic mapping, production data and infill drilling. Throughout the lifetime of a mining project, the block model and the mining sequence are periodically updated to account for this new data. In general, the acquisition of additional data increases the accuracy of the block model, reduces uncertainty in ore/waste limits and clarifies the optimal mining sequence. There has been extensive research on mine planning, but current techniques do not consider the decrease in uncertainty as additional information becomes available. Conventional paradigms assume either 1) the kriged model is correct and uncertainty due to multiple realizations does not change the mining sequence, or 2) the mining sequence is unrealistically adapted to each realization. A new paradigm is proposed for evaluating minable reserves of surface mining projects, which accounts for the acquisition of additional information in the design of the long term mine plan. Multiple scenarios characterizing the dynamic nature of mining and data collection are created. In the proposed methodology, the performance of the long-term mine plan depends on both mining and data acquisition strategies. Each scenario considers the same extracted volume for the first period, resulting in a set of scenarios that diverge from a common initial period, accounting for how the mine may develop over time as new data are acquired and provide a more realistic evaluation of reserves with an appropriate level of uncertainty. A synthetic example is presented to illustrate the implementation of the methodology and the benefits over conventional paradigms.

Jan 1, 2013

By Rami Abousleiman, Gabriel Walton, Sankhaneel Sinha

"Although conventional coal mine designs are conservative regarding pillar strength, local failures such as roof-falls and pillar bursts still affect mine safety and operations. Previous studies have identified that discontinuous, layered roof materials have some self-supporting capacity. This research is a preliminary step towards understanding these mechanics in coal-measure rocks. Although others have considered broad conceptual models and simplified analogs for mine roof behavior, this study presents a unique numerical model that more completely represents in-situ roof conditions. The discrete element method (DEM) is utilized to conduct a parametric analysis considering a range of in-situ stress ratios, material properties, and joint networks to determine the parameters controlling the stability of single-entries modeled in two-dimensions. Model results are compared to empirical observations of roof-support effectiveness (ARBS) in the context of the coal mine roof rating (CMRR) system. Results such as immediate roof displacement, overall stability, and statistical relationships between model parameters and outcomes are presented herein. Potential practical applications of this line of research include: (1) roof-support optimization for a range of coal-measure rocks, (2) establishment of a relationship between roof stability and pillar stress, and (3) determination of which parameters are most critical to roof stability and therefore require concentrated evaluation.INTRODUCTIONRecent studies on pillar design have suggested that the assumptions utilized in traditional methods such as tributary area theory (TAT) (i.e. overburden has no self-supporting capacity, infinite pillar array, and CHILE material properties) are invalid in many geo-mining conditions (Esterhuizen, Mark, and Murphy, 2010; Frith and Reed, 2017). Although TAT is conservative with respect to pillar loading, and mine fatalities have steadily decreased since 1990, roof-falls and pillar bursts still occur and injure hundreds of miners per year (Mark, Pappas, and Barczak, 2011). Even though large-scale global mine failure has not occurred in a US coal mine since 2007, the mechanics of global and local stability as governed by the relationship between geologic parameters, mine geometry, and engineering design are still not well-constrained.Numerical methods are a highly effective tool that can be used to gain further insight into these relationships. When using such an approach, calibration to existing empirical relationships is imperative to ensure that numerical model results are realistic. In this study, we utilize the discrete element method (DEM) approach in Itasca’s Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC v. 6.0) (Itasca, 2010).DEM accounts for explicit separation and contact of individual deformable blocks (Jing, 2003) and captures how discontinuities can affect system behavior. Discontinuous and anisotropic rockmass properties are typical features in coal-measure rock which contain various horizontal (bedding) and sub-vertical (joints) fractures depending on their depositional environment, diagenesis, and historic and current stress states."

Jan 1, 2019

By Christopher Mark

Horizontal stresses are caused by global plate tectonic forces. During 1995 alone, they were largely responsible for closing two U.S. longwall mines. This paper presents six case histories from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Alabama. In each case history, a mine encountered roof falls or difficult ground conditions in the headgate, caused by horizontal stress concentrations. The problems are detailed, and the control measures adopted are described. In most cases, nearby longwall panels without stress concentrations were trouble-free. The paper also discusses detailed measurements made at two adjacent Pennsylvania longwalls. One headgate was oriented to avoid a horizontal stress concentration, and the other was not. Eliminating the stress concentration dramatically reduced roof support loads and roof deformation. The paper concludes that proper panel orientation and sequence is the key to maintaining headgate ground control. The optimum orientation is not parallel with the maximum horizontal stress, as previously thought, but rather 20° in the stress shadow of the gob. Other stress control techniques, including artificial support, are briefly discussed.

Jan 1, 1997

By J. R. Patts, L. D. Patts, S. J. Janisko, T. Barone

"Controlling float coal dust in underground coal mines before dispersal into the general airstream can reduce the risk of mine explosions while potentially achieving a more efficient and effective use of rock dust. A prototype, flooded-bed scrubber was evaluated for float coal dust control in the return of a continuous miner section. The scrubber was installed in line between the ventilation tubing and an exhausting auxiliary fan. Airborne and deposited dust mass measurements were collected over a period of three days at set distances from the fan exhaust to assess the changes in float coal dust levels in the return due to the operation of the scrubber. Mass-based measurements were collected on a per-cut basis and were normalized per foot of advance by the continuous miner. Results show that average float coal dust levels measured under baseline conditions were reduced by over 91% when operating the scrubber. INTRODUCTION In 2012, underground mining in the United States produced over 342 million tons of coal [EIA 2013]. During the cutting, crushing, and transport of this coal, dust is generated and can be entrained in the air ventilating the mine. Title 30 Code of Federal Regulations Part 75.400-1 (30 CFR§ 75.400-1) defines float coal dust as particles of coal that can pass a No. 200 sieve. These coal particles can be carried by the ventilating air into return entries before settling onto mine surfaces [NIOSH 2006]. If this float coal dust becomes re-entrained into the airstream, it can propagate an explosion throughout mine workings [Harris et al. 2010]. Application of rock dust in underground coal mines is required by Federal regulation as a means of preventing the propagation of explosions by float coal dust. In order to meet Title 30 Code of Federal Regulations Part 75.403 (30 CFR § 75.403), 80% incombustible content must be maintained in the composition of dust deposited in mine entries [76 Fed. Reg. 35968 (2011)]. This fraction of incombustible content is increased if elevated levels of methane are present. In order to maintain the required incombustible content, frequent or constant application of rock dust is undertaken by mine operators. Title 30 Code of Federal Regulations Part 75.2 (30 CFR § 75.2) defines the properties of the rock dust that must be used by mine operators."

Jan 1, 2015

By R. Krog, M. Valente, R. Ochsner, W. Marchewka, R. Jensen, R. K. Zipf

A tube bundle system (TBS) is a mechanical system for continuously drawing gas samples through tubes from multiple monitoring points located in an underground coal mine for analysis and display on the surface. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), in collaboration with Signal Peak Energy (SPE), LLC, Bull Mountains No. 1 Mine, operated a TBS during mining of two bleederless, longwall panels. This paper describes the gas analysis data and its interpretation. As verified by the TBS, coal at the SPE mine tends to oxidize slowly. It was known that a reservoir of low-oxygen concentration atmosphere developed about 610 m (2,000 ft) behind the longwall face. A bleederless ventilation system facilitates formation of an inert atmosphere in this longwall gob and decreases the likelihood of spontaneous combustion. Connections of the mine atmosphere to the surface through subsidence cracks could allow airflow into the longwall gob, revive coal oxidation and increase spontaneous combustion risk. The atmospheric composition of the sealed areas was homogeneous, except in the immediate vicinity of suspected ingassing points. The TBS verified that gases within the partially sealed, bleederless longwall gob expanded into the longwall tailgate area when barometric pressure decreased. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the back return airflow at the longwall tailgate was observed to increase by a factor of three and possibly up to 10 times the typical background concentration of 0.5 to 1.0%, depending on the size of the longwall gob and the magnitude of barometric pressure decrease. TBS have the inherent disadvantage of slow response time due to travel time of the gas samples and sequential gas analyses. A TBS or similar continuous monitoring system could be beneficial in detecting and providing warning of potentially hazardous gas concentrations, if the slow response time of the system is always understood.

Jan 1, 2013

By L. Gertsch, R. Gustafson, J. Rostami, C. Swope

Development of a permanent human base on the moon for exploration requires a self-sustaining system. Such a system entails the production and processing of limited amounts of raw material on the moon. Any mining and construction activities on the moon can only be performed by a robust excavation machine that can excavate a variety of material, from loose surface regolith to consolidated (frozen) regolith with embedded rocks in the mixture. Meanwhile, a limited amount of information on lunar regolith is available to develop and optimize a machine for lunar ground conditions. Therefore, any excavator designed for use on the lunar surface should have the ability to adapt to a wide range of operating conditions. A prototype cutterhead for the lunar excavator was built and tested at the Kennametal facility in Latrobe, PA. This paper discusses the results of initial material characterization, as well as full-scale tests of a prototype cutterhead in relevant material. A brief review of anticipated production rates under various assumed ground conditions is also presented.

Jan 1, 2010

By D. R. Gehring

Effective project management is an excellent technique for meeting a goal through set, well-defined objectives. Even though project management is successfully used throughout the world in various construction projects, underground mining has unique characteristics that require approaches that vary from classical project management theory. Typically, a project includes four main stages: definition, planning, implementation and control. Definition and planning are often the most overlooked stages, but are arguably the most important. This paper addresses practical techniques for the definition and planning of projects for underground construction.

Jan 1, 1996

By R. J. Sheets

"INTRODUCTION What is the primary responsibility for geo-engineers in mining? Early in my career, I was asked this question by an experienced engineer. After explaining some various tasks, I was informed that the main responsibility was to monitor. Although this proved true for many cases, I came to understand that monitoring is merely one means to achieve the primary responsibility of a geo-engineer – ensure the safety of all personnel. The potential for groundwater to impact stability allows this responsibility to be shared with hydrogeologists as well. Inherently, we monitor to identify risks; we analyze designs and develop models to mitigate risks; and we are provided opportunities to explain to supervisors the geo-risks to personnel and mine plans that will result from particular courses of action. A couple years ago, I took an opportunity to share experiences from the first several years of my career as a geotechnical engineer with junior geo-engineering staff within my company. The intent was to share situations that were a part of my development, so they could learn and understand their responsibility to the safety of all personnel. Similarly, the purpose of this paper will be to share these thoughts with new geo-engineers in the industry in order to help prepare them for the challenges they will face. WHAT IS OUR PURPOSE? A senior hydrogeologist shared an experience that occurred in their career. The experienced hydrogeologist had spent some time with the hydrogeology staff, most of them relatively new to the mining industry, to understand how they viewed, and carried out, what they perceived as their responsibility at an active mining operation. After a couple months of observing and mentoring, the senior hydrogeologist met with everyone and posed the question above. I am sure that most junior geo-engineers would start explaining different tasks or projects that they must complete. The list would include monitor groundwater levels, track slope movement, evaluate designs, build models, oversee drilling programs, etc. These individuals did as well their supervisor. After going around the room allowing each individual to answer, the experienced hydrogeologist provided them the real answer to the question: SAFETY. If you examine the root intent of nearly every responsibility geotechnical engineers and hydrogeologists have, it is to apply our professional skills to ensure the safety of our workforce. When the objective of safety from the geotechnical and hydrogeology disciplines is achieved, inherently accomplishing the mine plan should follow suit, or it should significantly minimize the impact by gravity or groundwater. The objective of a hydrogeologist is to ensure the soil or rock around an open pit or underground mine is dewatered; this specific objective will reduce pore pressures which could lead to a possible ground failure. They ensure a working bench/UG level is dry, so operations are not dealing with adverse conditions while mining. A geotechnical engineer is expected to use all available information and engineering judgement to provide design recommendations, so that the mine will not catastrophically fail. Additionally, they will implement the monitoring systems to identify hazards in advance in the event that the design is flawed and people need to be evacuated. We all know that safety is important to everyone; however, our particular set of technical skills play a significant role in ensuring the safety of a large portion of the global mining workforce."

Jan 1, 2018

By J. G. Nalven

On July 1, 1999, most domestic metal mines will have to report releases of toxic chemicals into the environment for the first time as required by SARA Title 313. Some of these reportable releases will appear huge in relation to reports by other industries. The reasons for the potentially large reportable releases, special considerations for mining operations, and strategies for dealing with the reports are described. Data composited from experience with several mining companies is presented in the context of a typical gold mine.

Jan 1, 1999

By A. Gupta, F. Hrach, L. R. Mendoza, K. Flynn

ST Equipment & Technology LLC (STET) has developed a novel processing system based on tribo-electrostatic belt separation that provides the mineral processing industry a means to beneficiate fine materials with an energy-efficient and entirely dry technology. In contrast to other electrostatic separation processes that are typically limited to particles >75μm in size, the STET triboelectric belt separator is suited for separation of very fine (<1μm) to moderately coarse (500μm) particles, with very high throughput. The STET tribo-electrostatic technology has been used to process and commercially separate a wide range of industrial minerals and other dry granular powders. Here, bench-scale results are presented on the beneficiation of low-grade Fe ore fines using STET belt separation process. Bench-scale testing demonstrated the capability of the STET technology to simultaneously recover Fe and reject 2 from itabirite ore with a D50 of 60μm and ultrafine Fe ore tailings with a D50 of 20μm.The STET technology is presented as an alternative to beneficiate Fe ore fines that could not be successfully treated via traditional flowsheet circuits due to their granulometry and mineralogy. INTRODUCTION Iron ore is the fourth most common element in earth’s crust [1]. Iron is essential to steel manufacturing and therefore an essential material for global economic development [1-2]. Iron is also widely used in construction and the manufacturing of vehicles [3]. Most of iron ore resources are composed of metamorphosed banded iron formations (BIF) in which iron is commonly found in the form of oxides, hydroxides and to a lesser extent carbonates [4-5]. A particular type of iron formations with higher carbonate contents are dolomitic itabirites which are a product of the dolomitization and metamorphism of BIF deposits [6]. The largest iron ore deposits in the world can be found in Australia, China, Canada, Ukraine, India and Brazil [5]. The chemical composition of iron ores has an apparent wide range in chemical composition especially for Fe content and associated gangue minerals [1]. Major iron minerals associated with most of the iron ores are hematite, goethite, limonite and magnetite [1,5]. The main contaminants in iron ores are 2 and Al2O3 [1,5,7]. The typical silica and alumina bearing minerals present in iron ores are quartz, kaolinite, gibbsite, diaspore and corundum. Of these it is often observed that quartz is the mean silica bearing mineral and kaolinite and gibbsite are the two-main alumina bearing minerals [7]. Iron ore extraction is mainly performed through open pit mining operations, resulting in significant tailings generation [2]. The iron ore production system usually involves three stages: mining, processing and pelletizing activities. Of these, processing ensures that an adequate iron grade and chemistry is achieved prior to the pelletizing stage. Processing includes crushing, classification, milling and concentration aiming at increasing the iron content while reducing the amount of gangue minerals [1-2]. Each mineral deposit has its own unique characteristics with respect to iron and gangue bearing minerals, and therefore it requires a different concentration technique [7].

Jan 1, 2019

By P. Michael

Proponents of geomorphic mine land reclamation have criticized current reclamation practices in the coal fields of steep-sloped Central Appalachia as too narrowly focused on civil engineering principles and neglectful of the functional and aesthetic benefits of reclaiming mine sites in ways that mimic natural landforms and drainage patterns. They observe that current mining and reclamation practices are radically transforming the mountain-and-valley terrain into gigantic flat plateaus and, in doing so, disrupting the beauty and ecology of the natural landscape. Instead of designing and constructing linear or planar surfaces and unvarying slope gradients during the reclamation process, they recommend ?landforming,? i.e. the adoption of curvilinear, compound slope forms that blend well with the surrounding physiography and represent the result of naturally stabilizing geomomorphic processes. The authors feel that the concept of geomorphic mine land reclamation is sound, however, its application to the Central Appalachian coal fields faces significant--albeit not insurmountable--challenges. They include: (1) existing reclamation enforcement regulations that are focused on civil engineering principles and not explicitly supportive of geomorphic methodologies; (2) regulatory agencies? current intent to limit the down-gradient reach of excess spoil fills in order to allay disruption or burial of natural streams; (3) actual or perceived increases in reclamation costs; and (4) the challenge of designing and constructing ?natural? landforms that are mature and stable in an otherwise youthful, erosional landscape.

Jan 1, 2010