Search Documents

By K. Taylor

In surface coal mining, the performance of a shovel through blasted muck is one of the key performance indicators of the blast. Historically, performance has been measured qualitatively based on operator feedback or visuals of the muckpile. More complete shovel data, such as loading times and GPS location, is available from most fleet dispatch systems that are already in place at most truck and shovel operations. With some database and analysis skill, the drill and blast team can take advantage of this data to make targeted improvements to drill and blast designs. An area typically known to cause trouble for shovel operators at this operation are blast boundaries. Blast patterns with and without design changes along the boundaries were studied in this case study. The instantaneous loading times for each shovel pass were analyzed for 75 blasts across two subsequent benches with similar firing direction and shovel paths. The benches were split into three categories: Main body of pattern, boundary with design change, and boundary with no design change. The loading times from the main body of the patterns and where the design change was utilized in the boundary had similar prevalence of good loading times. However, boundary areas without the deign change had approximately 2% more prevalence of poor loading times compared to the main boundary of the pattern. Improving the dig rates through the boundaries up to the average loading time would result in approximately 280 hours taken off the total loading time for one bench. By quantifying the shovel’s performance by GPS location, the drill and blast team can decide how much of a design change is needed, can target precisely only the areas that require it and measure the impact of any changes made

Jan 1, 2024

By W. Boas, R. Silva, D. Yumi, L. Steffen

The continuity of the flow and stages within the mining process is essential to achieve success in its operation and results, especially when it comes to a gold mine. During the first seven months of 2022, crushing at the Morro do Ouro Mine had 19 stops in the primary crusher due to equipment blockage/obstruction, this could be due to the size of the material that was blasted with explosives and fed. The feeding of coarse material to the crushing plant impacts the operation in several ways, for example, premature wear of the equipment, reduction in the supply of the remainder of the beneficiation, reduction of the buffer pile and damage to the conveyed belt. In a mine located far from the community, the fragmentation improvement is mainly related to load increments or some other relatively simple change. However, when it comes to a mine located close to communities, alterations of this type must be analyzed in detail, as it can have an impact mainly in relation to vibration and flyrock. Aiming to improve the efficiency of the blasting, mainly in relation to the result of fragmentation, a project was created to improve the efficiency of the blasting with a focus on reducing the crushing stoppage and reducing the amount of material discarded due to inadequate granulometry. During the evolution of the project, several improvement solutions were proposed, for example adjustment of the power factor in relation to the geological characteristics of the rock mass, drainage, blasting geometry, vibration reduction techniques and several operational improvements. By using the techniques and methods identified as improvements during the project, it was possible to observe and quantify improvements in relation to the fragmentation of the blast. During the months of January to July 2022 there were 19 events. It was estimated that at this rate there would be 14 more blockage events, but there were only 3 events and that meant a 79% reduction in blockage. In addition to the reduction in crushing shutdown events, there was also a 53% reduction in the amount of ore that is discarded due to inadequate granulometry and, with that, the feed rate of the grinding system was able to reach the maximum feed limit due to the material being fed to the mill well fragmented, contributing to increase the production and productivity of the beneficiation process at the Morro do Ouro Mine in Paracatu-Minas Gerais-Brazil.

Jan 1, 2024

By J. Silva, M. Kotraba, F. Pontanilla

Blasting is the application of highly complex science that, in some cases, could be viewed as an art. Many variables are involved in a blast, including geology, pattern design, timing and firing sequence, and explosives selection. Assuming that better results can be achieved by only increasing the powder factor is inaccurate. The Drill-to-Mill (D2M) concept has been in the mining industry for over two decades. The D2M approach is commonly viewed in an oversimplified manner, assuming that by simply increasing drilling and the amount of explosives used (both of which add operational costs), the downstream value will be created. An optimized D2M initiative should combine the smart application of explosives at the beginning of the mining process, matching the dynamic properties of the rock to the explosive selected to improve the efficiency of the energy created by the explosive to the rock mass being blasted, and to bring benefits to the mining operation across the entire mining and processing value-chain. This paper reviews the principles behind matching the shock impedance of the rock and the explosive and compares the traditional use of explosives versus the smart application for two hypothetical blasts.

Jan 1, 2024

By S. Behera, K. Dey

This paper presents a methodology for finite element (FE) modelling to analyse the total deformation of rockmass under blast-load, with a focus on predicting backbreak that may occur during surface blasting operations. Backbreak can result from improper use of explosive energy, leading to damage beyond the excavation zone and jeopardizing operational safety and productivity. The paper highlights the impacts of backbreak on bench stability, excavator operation, drilling operation, flyrock generation, and improper fragmentation and boulder formation in surface blasting. However, prior estimation of extent of rock breakage zone can provide an idea to formulate the blast design to control the backbreak. While vibration-based prediction models are commonly used to estimate backbreak, they require physical blasting experimentation. To overcome this limitation, the paper describes the development of a FE model using ANSYS Explicit dynamics, which simulates rock blasting and calculates the total deformation of the rockmass. The rockmass deformation is modelled using Drucker-Prager (D-P) strength model with the Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) equation of state for the explosives. The accuracy of the FE model is evaluated through physical experiments, and the results are compared with the vibration models. The FE model demonstrates close proximity to physical observations as well as vibration model result in predicting backbreak, thereby offering a promising alternative to vibration-based prediction models. The primary objective of the study is to predict the response of the insitu rockmass to explosive blast loading and determine the effective rock breakage zone.

Jan 1, 2024

By R. Ticona, J. Alarcon

In the continuous search to provide comprehensive solutions and identify opportunities to improve ore traceability, from the blastholes to mill feed, different ore traceability systems have been developed, which allow tracking the ore and associating its geometallurgical characterization of different sectors of interest from blasting to the processing plant, facilitating decision making and operational actions when detected during each stage of the plant. With the objective of improving the ore tracking from the mine to the processing plant in a Peruvian copper mine operation, the impact on the processing plant was evaluated in relation to blasting optimizations through a tracker system, relating the processes performance of the whole production chain with the geotechnical and geometallurgical properties ores in real time in the process plant: detecting when it was feed waste, high grade ore, low grade ore and ore with arsenic, among others. Unit and integral tests were carried out over a period of three months, with an implementation of tracker detection portals in the processing plant, which allowed to verify the proper communication of data and the web platform. The tests were focused on several blasts where the ore was in contact with waste and it were directly sent to the plant, with a classification by type of grade (high, medium, and low grade), type of material (ore-waste contour), this stage allowed to make operational adjustments in the field and in the mining operation. Finally, in the economic results, the special tests had 1000 trackers, obtaining for this project a sensitization of a cost benefit for the test stage, for the reduction of 50% of the waste material feed has crushed, with an estimated benefit of 1,987,646 USD.

Jan 1, 2024

By E. Lentilucci, A. Dey, X. Liu, A. Datta, S. Ghosh

The segmentation of quarry blast smoke plumes is a crucial research area that has the potential to enhance safety, environmental monitoring, object detection, and regulatory compliance in the mining industry. Smoke plume segmentation can be used to identify the spatial extent and temporal evolution of smoke plumes generated by the blast. This information can be used to improve the understanding of blast dynamics and optimize blast designs. Furthermore, smoke plume segmentation can assist in identifying potential environmental and health hazards associated with the release of smoke and dust particles into the atmosphere during quarry blasts. However, many current smoke plume segmentation algorithms are designed for segmentation of smoke plumes from fires and are not suitable for segmentation of plumes from quarry blasts. The proposed method in this paper leverages the video frame captured before the blast as a stationary background image, which helps to reduce other confuser objects present in the image along with a selfadaptive clustering method. The color channels of the image are utilized based on the different contrast properties of the smoke, with a self-adaptive gradient compensation applied for edge detection of the smoke plume. This approach offers a novel and effective way to segment smoke in quarry blast analysis, with potential applications in the calculation of noxious gas volume and concentration within the plume. Compared to other algorithms, our method improves accuracy, decreases the false alarm rates, and reduces the overall miss rate. Overall, this paper contributes to the research on smoke plume image segmentation, particularly for quarry blast smoke plumes, which possess unique characteristics that require specialized algorithms for accurate segmentation.

Jan 1, 2024

By S. Green, R. Yang

Blasting is a commonly used method for rock fragmentation in mining operations for mineral extraction. It involves breaking the rock mass into small pieces, and ideally creating micro fractures within the small pieces. Such micro fractures could significantly reduce the energy required for subsequent processes like crushing and comminution. Additionally, micro fractures would enhance the rock-fragraments fluid permeability thereby enhancing desired chemical reactions during certain processing operations. This paper presents recent developments of the Multiple Blasthole Fragmentation (MBF) model, which simulates blasting rockmass fragmentation. The MBF model allows estimating rock strains experienced during the blast, for various blast design parameters and geometries. The intent is to correlate these strains with created micro fractures in the blast rock fragments. Adjusting blast design parameters in the MBF model of explosive loading and delay timing allows blast optimization. Such optimizing would create desirable strains to enhance micro fractures within the rock fragments. This would improve mining operations by enhancing downstream operation efficiency, thus reducing costs.

Jan 1, 2024

By D. Johansson, C. San Miguel, U. Stenman, N. Petropoulos

Blasting is a commonly utilized method in civil engineering projects and mining operations. Ammonium nitrate-based (AN-based) explosives are the most efficient explosives today in terms of handling and performance. However, a side effect is the production of gases. The reduction of these gases plays an important role in the safety and environmental aspects in the working place. Therefore, optimizing the recipes of explosives is vital for minimizing the environmental impact and increasing performance. The aim of the project is to provide results and recommendations on the use of emulsion commercial explosives to support the Swedish mining industry and tunnel-contractors as well as the explosives manufactures. The approach was to test various recipes of civil emulsion explosives to investigate the generation of toxic fumes (CO, CO2, NO, NO2 and NOx) during their detonation. To further increase the knowledge of the influence of different additives, ammonium nitrate prills were added in various percentages. The experimental configuration consisted of magnetite mortar cylindrical specimens with a 50 mm borehole at their center, filled with emulsion explosive. Several tests with different emulsion compositions regarding ammonium nitrate additives (10%, 20%, 25%, 30% and 35%) were carried out in a blasting chamber. The measurement equipment was composed of a flue gas analyzer. The instrument was meticulously cleaned after every test, as well as before and during the tests due to condensation (high humidity and dust) at the inlet of the instrument. The emulsion was manually sensitized with microballons and pumped into the cylinders to ensure lack of bubbles, which could introduce inhomogeneities. The acquired gas concentration data was complemented with temperature, humidity, and VoD measurements. The results showed a linear increase of nitrogen gases as the percentage of ammonium nitrate prills increased. On the other hand, carbon gases had a relatively low coefficient of determination. The VoD data showed a behavior that can be described with a simple quadratic equation.

Jan 1, 2024

By S. Hosein, W. Birch, C. Johnson

The widespread adoption of electronic detonators has given rise to the development of linear superposition to control the environmental impact on both third-party properties and residents resulting from blast induced vibrations. Linear superposition has become a very effective tool in the hands of blasting engineers and has enabled aggregate reserves to be accessed that once had to be abandoned. This in turn has resulted in more and more complex blasting pattern to be developed that contain multiple rows and multiple decks all with different maximum instantaneous charge weights of explosives. This is then made more complex by having to consider multiple sensitive locations often with different Peak Particle Velocity vibration limits. This paper is a case study of what did happen when a blast was designed that “pushed the boundaries” of environmental blast vibration design and control, without taking fully into account the fundamental geophysical properties of seismic waves. The resulting blast design caused a greatly enhanced s-wave to be created in a critical direction from the blast pattern. The root cause being the s-waves from earlier detonating decks in the blast pattern arriving within 2 milliseconds of decks detonating later in the blast pattern. 209 individual decks were fired in the blast pattern of which 41 pairs of decks arrived at the observation location less than 2 milliseconds apart when taking into account the s-wave speed and direction. The lesson to be learned when using electronic detonators to limit ground vibrations from complex blasting patterns, is that it is just not good enough to look at the planned firing times, a professional blasting engineer must also understand the likely interaction of the various seismic wave types created and their combined impact on any given monitoring location.

Jan 1, 2024

By D. Swanson

Cold Detonation Physics (CDP) is a patented new field of explosives and the name for the explosive that is produced when non-toxic dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) is combined with powdered metals such as magnesium and aluminum, which are non-toxic and nitrogen-free. The explosive is detonator-sensitive and detonates according to the rapid reduction of carbon dioxide back to carbon, which produces solids comprised mainly of metal oxides and about 5% carbon. CDP was determined to produce a maximum of 300 liters of carbon dioxide per kilogram (4.81 ft3 /lb) and about 1.5 liters of carbon monoxide per kilogram (0.024 ft3 /lb). Both these figures shift according to metal content where higher metal produces less gases. According to theoretical modelling, the relationship between static pressure and metal content was determined to be an inverse parabolic curve with optimum pressure at 25% to 31% metal, depending on the type/s of metal/s used. Velocity of Detonation (VOD) was determined by measuring light at the wavefront with fiber-optic cable inserted into a series of holes drilled into the side of a 3-inch diameter (76 mm) schedule 40 steel pipe containing the mixture. The highest VOD was observed at 25% magnesium and measured between 2,500 to 4,500 m/s (8202 to 14,764 ft/s) when initiated by a 454-gram (1-pound) booster and an electric detonator. A 25% 50:50 alloy of magnesium and aluminum sample shot at a higher velocity than magnesium, according to how the alloy generated smaller pieces of shrapnel when compared with shrapnel from a magnesium test. CDP, using 25% alloy, was tested for blasting limestone by drilling 3.5-inch holes (89 mm) and inserting a 3-inch x 4-foot cardboard tube (76 mm x 1.22 m) with the mixture, packed to a density of 0.62 g/cm3 . The blast was initiated with an electric detonator, behaved like ANFO with more energy and fractured rock sufficiently across the entire length of the borehole. Seismic analysis determined that CDP produces lower ground vibrations than traditional explosives.

Jan 1, 2024

By R. J. Cefalo

Blast and mining spillover between phases or critical areas of the pit is a continuing problem in the mining industry and a safety concern for operating mines. The challenge for many mines is to produce the highest value in the shortest amount of time for any project. For any project, the top priority of any mine is producing ore as fast as possible. The next challenge is to keep that ore feed continuous. To achieve continuous ore feed, pits are designed with multiple phases that are connected and are mined at different elevations. This difference in elevation causes dangers with spillover between the phases during mining, drilling, and blasting. This paper covers an incident that occurred at an active mine and the work completed in creating a spillover control program over an active mining phase. The drill and blast technical group was responsible for creating blast patterns to reduce spillover between these phases. Unrealistic goals and expectations were initially set for the area of the pit. The drill and blast technical group needed to figure blast objectives and work with the geotechnical team to align with these goals. This paper will go over the executed example of setting up spillover targets and expectations for multiple sections of an operating mine. Different sections of the pit had different control measures and blast objectives due to narrow laybacks and double benching. The use and value of blast objectives and goals were beneficial in setting expectations and measuring design success. Having unrealistic blast goals can set up the operations to fail or get frustrated in trying to work on an impossible task. The problems and risks of phase interactions for many open pit operations need to be considered in the design process, along with designed controls that minimize the probability of any safety incident. Mine designs are being created in the industry and do not consider phase-to-phase mining interaction and the impact it would have on safety or production. The best future for safer mines is blast patterns that reduce spillover between phases of mining and pit designs that might account for spillover interaction.

Jan 1, 2024

By K. Best, D. Conn

The US Army Corps of Engineers KY Lock Project in western Kentucky presented the blasters and vibration consultants with a set of unique challenges. The blasters on this project were faced with difficult geology and joint set orientation and sequencing of blasts opposite from what the explosive engineer/blasting specialist had recommended. Combining these issues with strict vibration and air overpressure specifications, blasting as close as 7 feet (2.1 meters) from a new lock wall, site topography that influenced the air overpressure, limitations on seismograph geophone placement that led to anomalies in seismograph recordings; surprising lessons were learned by everyone involved in the project and it is the authors’ goal to share this valuable information with everyone in the blasting industry.

Jan 1, 2024

By M. Szumny, P. Mertuszka, K. Fuławka

Multi-face destress blasting is the basic method of reducing rock bursts hazard in Polish copper mines. Blasting operations of this type are carried out regularly, twice a day in order to minimize the geomechanical threat while maintaining high extraction efficiency. Unfortunately, the assessment of the effectiveness of this type of work until recently was based solely on determining whether a given destress blasting triggered a seismic tremor or not. Information on the characteristics of seismic waves generated by blasting has so far been omitted in analyzes of this type. The lack of reliable knowledge about the generated seismic effect makes the introduction of constructive corrective actions impossible, which in turn significantly reduces the triggering potential of conducted destress blasting. This study presents the results of comprehensive work aimed at increasing the effectiveness of active rock burst prevention in Lubin underground copper mine. For this purpose, an innovative system for continuous monitoring of seismic waves induced by multi-face blasting was developed, and a new method for seismic assessment of the effectiveness of the destress activities was developed. Based on the monitoring data and the comprehensive analysis of waveforms, the effectiveness of individual blasting operations was determined, and on this basis, modifications to the drilling and blasting patterns aimed at increasing the generated seismic effect were proposed. The use of innovative methods of monitoring and data analysis made it possible to increase the effectiveness of the conducted activities, in terms of the magnitude of seismic vibrations, up to 250%. It should be emphasized that the introduced modifications were aimed at increasing the effectiveness of blasting operations while maintaining the current level of costs. As a result, the proposed solution turned out to be highly effective, significantly affecting the safety of the work carried out in Polish copper mines. Thus the proposed approach is planned to be implemented in other Polish copper mines belonging to KGHM in the near future

Jan 1, 2024

By Mark Roberts

Automation, data analytics and optimisation are key trends in the mining industry. Doing more, and better, while expending less resources targets KPIs around efficiency and productivity. With the explosion of data, the next step is to develop an optimal level of processes and systems to harness this data to support value-in use decisions. Typically, significant amounts of resources and effort are invested to develop realistic simulation models. However, models are frequently not integrated with existing systems, and therefore are underutilised. When we consider the specialised process of blasting, integration with upstream and downstream processes is a significant driver to realise sustained improvements and value. The application of genetic algorithms and cloud computing to solving complex mining problems has advanced over the last 15 years, in particular with mine scheduling. Genetic algorithms are unique in that they support true multi-objective optimisation, utilising population-based methods to present trade-offs between multiple solutions. Secure in-cloud processing speeds up the processing, with results delivered in timeframes that are not feasible with desktop computing.

Feb 6, 2023

By Peter Dare-Bryan, Will Hunt, Lee Julian

It is well-known that blasting has an economic effect on grade control activities. However, until recently, methods did not exist for measuring the grade control value change caused by the blast. Rules of thumb were the best method to minimize ore loss and dilution, as simulation has been traditionally constrained by time and computer power. Even with these rules followed, an extensive study performed on over 150 blasts showed that the value change caused by the blasts followed a normal distribution – some blasts created value, and some blasts destroyed value. The question naturally asked was “How can we ensure the blast designs are optimized to create value?” Recent advancements in computer power have enabled real-time blasting simulations that create post-blast grade control models before the blast is fired. Understanding what will happen before it happens allows blasters and grade control personnel to iterate designs, searching for the highest value achievable.

Feb 6, 2023

By Santiago Gómez, Pablo Segarra, José A. Sanchidrián

In-hole detonation pressure measurements are unusual in the production environment of a mining operation, partly owing to the hostile conditions to which recording equipment and pertinent probes must be subjected and, partly by the constraints of the production cycle. In recent decades, detonation pressure measurement techniques have been developed using low carbon resistors (LCR)-based gauges. They are cheap, relatively easy-to-operate, robust and with a high percentage of success in both open-pit and underground mining. Detonation pressure measurements are extremely important when carrying out numerical modelling to simulate explosive induced vibrations, since simulation results are highly dependent on the pressure-time history applied on the blasthole wall. Analytical equations have typically been used to model the pressure-time history; however, they usually do not adequately represent the behaviour of the explosive in terms of: peak pressure reached, rise time, mean frequency, decay and shape of the signal. Experimental records may be directly used instead of utilizing synthetic signals if they are available. In this work, (LCR)-based gauges are used to measure detonation pressure inside a production blasthole. The operation principle of the gauges utilized and the instrumentation layout is described in detail. A flexible resolution USB oscilloscope with high sampling rate has been used to catch the elusive pressure peak event. Measurements were carried out in production blasts fired with ANFO (0.86 g/cm3) in an underground mine––this also includes velocity of detonation (VOD) records––. A procedure based on the shock impedance matching has been developed to calculate the detonation pressure due to the characteristics of the gauges prevent its direct measurement. Detonation pressures obtained range from 1.71 to 2.97 GPa (248.01 to 430.76 ksi) which are in line with pressures calculated from the VOD records. Mean frequency and rise time analysis shows that 2 of 3 signals cannot be described using typical analytical equations.

Feb 6, 2023

By Carlos Enrique Arroyo Ortiz, Jadir Pedro Alves

This paper presents some of the results obtained during the research work about the use of technologies and digital transformation in the process of rock drilling in open pit mines. The use of automation presents itself as a disruptive factor and a driver of improvements that provide sustainability in rock drilling. Seven main operational parameters were utilized to combine measurement while the drilling (MWD) with other information generated by the equipment during hole drilling, in six different lithologies in an iron mine, located in the central region of Minas Gerais in Brazil. Adjustments and corrections were made to the data collected in order to minimize external influences other than the rock itself, to ensure the effectiveness of the analyses. Finally, we sought to compare the performance of the drilling process in manual and automatic operation modes. Thus, making it possible to show the efficiency and impact on the sustainability of rock drilling operations in open pit mines.

Feb 6, 2023

By Nadya Michel, Daniel Gros-Jean

This is a true story. Names have been changed to illustrate the importance and impact of carbon monoxide risk management in explosive blast projects and the community « Honey I’m not feeling good…” “What is going on Michael?” – – Michael was not answering so Julia, who was on the third level of the magnificent house, hurried down the stairs to check up on him in the basement. Today was day 2 of the construction work of the bathroom, yesterday they had excavated all the space for the shower. She started to breathe heavily as she was approaching the bathroom and saw Michael unconscious on the floor. “Michael!” – Julia immediately dialed 911. She opened a window since the air was heavy and went by Michael to hear him breathe and take his pulse. The paramedics took Michael on a stretcher and rushed him to the hospital. “I’m feeling dizzy” she thought to herself a couple of hours after the incident, and heard Matthew say: “Mom, I’m feeling sick”. Suddenly, she felt like she would pass out and felt in danger but couldn’t move. She desperately searched for her cellphone and dialed 911 but couldn’t speak. The dispatcher sent the firefighters and paramedics to the GPS location that was appearing on the screen and the emergency team was alerted that it was a second call in hours at the same address. When the firefighters arrived, they had to force the door to enter and found Julia in her bedroom on the third floor and Anette and Matthew also unconscious in their bedroom, lying on their respective bed. There was no smoke but on their multigas meter, carbon monoxide (CO) peaked at 1500 ppm on every level of the house, which is abnormally high.

Feb 6, 2023

By Rachel Bauer, Jacob Henderson, Dr. Catherine Johnson

Capital Quarries in Owensville, Missouri faces several challenges when designing a blast that allows for ease of movement while maintaining controlled throw and compliant air over pressure. The primary challenge is the nearest non-owned structure (NNOS) is a residential home located 250 feet from the quarry. Another challenge is a production bench which is 100 feet tall and separated from the NNOS by Pennsylvanian fire clay that filters out high frequency waves from the blast. Material from the blast must also be less than 5 inches in order to be processed by the crusher in the quarry. To provide as much relief as possible, production shots will consist of a single row with the minimum required burden. To design the shot, signature hole analysis was used to determine the optimal timing between powder columns. Electronic detonators provided an accurately timed shot to minimize the amplitude of the vibrations while maximizing the frequencies. Boretraking and 3D profiling with Renishaw laser profiler and Strayos drone photogrammetry provided an accurate burden measurement. Powder factor was kept at 1.3 tons/lb using bulk emulsion. The boreholes were split into 5 powder columns with the top of the hole firing first in order to blast to floor grade. The resulting shot produced good fragmentation and shot to floor grade. Seismograph readings showed air over pressure vibrations within legal limits. Due to this success, multiple shots will be designed using the process described.

Feb 6, 2023

By Tuan Nguyen, Dirk Hummel, Ruilin Yang

In a tunnelling site in Japan, it was found that detonators failed to initiate with their shells and primary explosive intact. Their capacitors, however, were discharged due to some damage on the application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs). These detonators are distinctly different from other commonly observed failures, where the shells are rather crashed due to excessive dynamic pressure received from neighbouring blastholes which fired earlier. Such incident has not been reported elsewhere. Detonator failures during a blast are deemed not safe and can cause disruption on the project productivity. It is therefore desirable to understand the origin of such event. Various measurements were conducted to diagnose the problem, but the root cause had yet to be identified. This paper applies a discovery from a 60-year-prior-laboratory experiment and formulates a theory that could explain the observed detonator failure and predicts the measurements and observations.

Feb 6, 2023